HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR

Transkript

1 HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Abdullah DEMİR, Yrd. Doç. Dr. «Her tercih bir vazgeçiştir»

2 GENEL TEKRAR

3 Why is Electromobility Interesting Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

4 Advantages of Electromobility Electric drive motors run quieter than internal-combustion engines. The noise emissions from electric vehicles is very low. At high speeds, the rolling noise from the tires is the loudest sound. Electric vehicles produce no harmful emissions or greenhouse gases while driving. If the high-voltage battery is charged from renewable energy sources, an electric vehicle can be run CO2 -free. In the near future, if particularly badly congested town centres are turned into zero-emissions zones, we will only be able to drive through them with high-voltage vehicles. The electric drive motor is very robust and requires little maintenance. It is only subject to minor mechanical wear. Electric drive motors have a high degree of efficiency of up to 96% compared with internal-combustion engines that have an efficiency of 35 40%. Electric drive motors have excellent torque and output characteristics. They develop maximum torque from standstill. This allows an electric vehicle to accelerate considerably faster than a vehicle with an internal combustion engine producing the same output. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

5 Advantages of Electromobility The drive train design is simpler because vehicle components like the transmission, clutch, mufflers, particulate filters, fuel tank, starter, alternator and spark plugs are not required. When the vehicle is braked, the motor can also be used as an alternator that produces electricity and charges the battery (regenerative braking). The high-voltage battery can be charged at home, in a car park and by using any accessible sockets. The blue charging connector on the vehicle and on public charging stations has been standardized across Germany and is used by all manufacturers. The energy is only supplied when the user needs it. Compared with conventional vehicles, the electric drive motor never runs when the vehicle stops at a red light. The electric drive motor is highly efficient particularly in lines and bumper-to-bumper traffic. Apart from the reduction gearbox on the electric drive motor, the electric vehicle does not require any lubricating oil. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

6 Disadvantages of Electric Vehicles Electric vehicles have a limited range due to battery size and construction. Charging a high voltage battery can take a long time, depending on the battery cahrge and power source. The network of electric charging stations is sparse. If the destination is beyond the range of the electric vehicle, the driver will need to plan the journey. Where can I charge my electric vehicle on the road? Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

7 Comparison of Torque Development Electric Drive Motor The electric drive motor (a) reaches its maximum torque as early as the first revolution. It does not require a start-up phase to reach idling speed. Once a specific rpm figure has been reached, the available torque falls as the revs increase. This motor speed is approximately 14,000 rpm. These characteristics of an electric drive motor mean that a complex transmission is not required. Internal-Combustion Engine: The internal-combustion engine (b) requires an idling speed to produce a torque. The available torque increases when the engine speed is increased. In addition, this characteristic of the internal-combustion engine requires a transmission with several gear ratios. The torque is transferred to the transmission via a clutch or a torque converter. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

8 Environmental Aspects CO2 Emissions Before 2050, global warming should not exceed the value of 3.6 F (2 C) related to the earth's temperature from pre-industrial times. This goal can only be achieved by reducing CO2 emissions. The plan is to reduce the CO2 emissions per capita from the current 45 tons per year to 0.7 tons per year by Electric vehicles do not directly produce CO2 emissions. However, the analysis of CO2 producers does not just evaluate the vehicle, but also the emissions that occur during the production of the electrical energy (e.g. in coal power stations). In Germany in particular, electromobility is closely linked to the use of clean electricity (i.e. from renewable energy). It can be assumed that today's electricity mixture causes lower CO2 emissions per vehicle compared with vehicles with internal-combustion engines. Analyzing the electricity mixture at international level is less favorable. The environmental balance of the electricity generation in threshold countries like China and India is not so good since they mainly rely on electricity generated from coal due to the rapidly rising demand for energy. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

9 Environmental Aspects All figures: Grams of CO2 per kilometer driven (as of 2011) Did you know? Since the pure hydrogen required for a fuel cell does not exist in nature, it must be produced using a complex process. This process requires a large amount of electrical energy. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

10 Environmental Aspects Renewable Energy: Renewable energy sources are energy sources that will be available in inexhaustible supply in the short run by human standards. Renewable energy sources include wind power, solar power, geothermics (terrestrial heat), hydropower and biomass. A further reduction of CO2 emissions in the electromobility field will be possible when the share of renewable energy sources is expanded in the electricity mixture. This share of European electricity production should rise to 48% by 2030 compared with the 17% in 2010.) Potential of Solar Energy The solar energy shining onto the earth corresponds to about ten thousand times today's total global energy requirement. Sunlight can provide more energy than we will need in the future. However, the costs and efficiency of solar cells stand in the way of the development of this potential. While the efficiency of the photovoltaic modules was around eight percent at the start of the eighties, the average modules currently on the market reach 17% and the leading-edge products almost 20%. In order for solar energy to be able to compete with other energy sources, solar power plants need to be made more efficient. Did you know? Within 24 hours, the amount of energy that reaches the earth around the world in the form of sunlight is enough to supply the world's population with electrical energy for a year. The share of geothermics (the use of heat in the earth's crust) in the generation of electricity is still smaller than 1% in Germany in Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

11 Basics of Electromobility The topic of electromobility basically refers to all vehicles that are driven by means of electrical energy. This includes both battery-powered vehicles and hybrid vehicles (full hybrid vehicles) or vehicles with a fuel cell. Electric vehicles are categorized primarily according to concept and their names indicate how the electrical energy is supplied. Emission-free vehicles that do not release exhaust gases into the environment during operation are also called zero-emission vehicles (ZEV). Battery-powered vehicles that are moved exclusively by an electric drive are also called battery electric vehicles (BEV). The energy required to run the vehicle is supplied by a high-voltage battery that is charged externally. Overview of the abbreviations used: BEV - Battery Electric Vehicle HEV - Hybrid Electric Vehicle; full hybrid vehicle FCBEV - Fuel Cell Battery Electric Vehicle; battery-powered vehicle with fuel cell PHEV - Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle; vehicle with full hybrid drive and external charging facility RXBEV - Range Extender Battery Electric Vehicle; battery-powered vehicle with additional generator drive to increase range (range extender) Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

12 Basics of Electromobility Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

13 Basics of Electromobility Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

14 Basics of Electromobility The Main Components of an Electric Vehicle The electric vehicle drive system includes: High-voltage battery with control unit for battery regulation and charger Electric motor/generator with electronic control (power electronics) and cooling system Transmission including the differential Brake system High-voltage air conditioning for vehicle interior climate control 1 Electric motor/generator 2 Transmission with differential 3 Power electronics 4 High-voltage lines 5 High-voltage battery 6 Electronics box with control unit for battery regulation 7 Cooling system 8 Brake system 9 High-voltage air conditioner compressor 10 High-voltage heating 11 Battery charger 12 Charging contact for external charging 13 External charging source Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

15 Basics of Electromobility Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

16 Basics of Electromobility The Electric Motor/Generator The term electric motor/generator is used instead of alternator, electric motor and starter. In principle, any electric motor can also be used as an alternator. When the electric motor/generator is driven mechanically, it supplies electrical energy as an alternator. When the electric motor/generator is supplied with an electrical current, it works as a drive. Electric motors/generators used for propulsion are water-cooled. Air cooling would also be possible but complex due to space and the smount of heat generated. In full hybrid vehicles (HEV), the electric motor/generator also functions as the starter for the combustion engine. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

17 Basics of Electromobility The Electric Motor/Generator Three-phase synchronous motors are often used as the electric motor/generator. A three-phase motor is powered by a three-phase alternating current. It works with three coils that are arranged in a circle around the rotor to form the stator and are each electrically connected to one of the three phases. Several pairs of permanent magnets are located on the rotor in this synchronous motor. Since the three coils are supplied sequentially with a current, together they generate a rotating electrical field that causes the rotor to rotate when the electric motor/ generator is used to drive the vehicle. When used as an alternator, the movement of the rotor induces a three-phase alternating voltage in the coils that is transformed into a direct voltage for the high-voltage battery in the power electronics. Normally so-called synchronous motors are used in vehicles. In this context, the term synchronous means running in synchronism and refers to the ratio of the rotation speed of the energised field in the stator coils to the rotation speed of the rotor with its permanent magnets. The advantage of synchronous motors compared with asynchronous motors is the more precise control of the motor in automobile applications Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

18 Basics of Electromobility Electric motor/generator (1) Rotor (2) Stator (3) Power electronics (4) High-voltage battery (5) Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

19 Basics of Electromobility Strengths of the Electric Motor/Generator The electric motor/generator is very environmentally compatible thanks to the lack of noise and harmful emissions. The electric motor/generator responds quickly, has good acceleration figures and a high level of efficiency. In contrast to combustion engines, electric motors supply their nominal power steplessly over a broad rpm range. The maximum torque is available even at low rpm (i.e. when pulling away) and only drops once the motor reaches very high speeds. As a result, neither a manually operated transmission, an automatic transmission nor a clutch are required. The direction of rotation of an electric drive motor is freely selectable. It can turn clockwise to move the vehicle forwards and counter-clockwise to reverse it. Electric motors start automatically. A separate starter motor is not required. Electric motors have a simpler design and have considerably fewer moving parts than internalcombustion engines. Only the rotor with its permanent magnets rotates inside the electric motor/generator. There are no vibrating masses as in internal combustion engines. Oil changes are not necessary as lubricating oil is not required. Consequently electrically powered vehicles are low-maintenance in terms of their drive unit. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

20 Drive Train Configurations An electric vehicle is driven by at least one electric drive motor. It can be configured as a four-wheel drive vehicle or with one drive axle. Other hybrid variations are also possible. The two main concepts are described in this section. 1. Drive with in-wheel motors 2. Drive with just one electric drive motor in the central drive train Design: The wheels are connected directly to the in-wheel motors. The in-wheel concept is used for electric scooters, electric bicycles and electrically driven wheel chairs. Features No drive shafts are required No differential transmission required Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

21 Drive Train Configurations Advantages Four-wheel drive is technically possible Output axles of the in-wheel motors are directly on the wheel High efficiency because there are hardly any mechanical losses Possibility of regenerative braking Disadvantages Unsprung masses in the wheel are greater than wheels on a conventional vehicle High mass of driven components (inertia and torque of whole vehicle affected) New vehicle design required Control is complex, both electric motors must run synchronously Combination with a hydraulic friction brake is still currently necessary Limited space on the wheel Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

22 Basics of Electromobility The term accumulator is sometimes used for rechargeable batteries. Originally batteries and accumulators were two different types of storage media for electrical energy. Today, the term rechargeable battery is generally used. The term battery refers to a storage device for electrical energy that cannot be recharged. The battery is made up of primary cells. The total voltage depends on the number and voltage of the individual cells. A primary cell releases the chemical energy it has stored as electrical energy in a chemical reaction. The original charge state cannot be restored by electrical recharging. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

23 Basics of Electromobility A rechargeable battery is made up of secondary cells. The most familiar rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery that is commonly used as a car battery. As with nonrechargeable batteries, the available quantity of energy is determined by the number of secondary cells that are connected to each other. In contrast with the primary cell battery, the chemical reaction that occurs here is easy to reverse. This means you can recharge the discharged battery with energy using a charger. Did you know? The cycle stability of laptop batteries and mobile telephone batteries is around 500 cycles. This means that these batteries can be charged from flat to full up to 500 times. After that, these batteries only have approximately 50% of their original capacity. The capacity is given as the State of Capacity (SOC). The SOH (State of Health) indicates the health of the battery. Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

24 Basics of Electromobility In the following section, the term high-voltage battery (HV battery) is used for a rechargeable battery that supplies electricity to the electric motor/generator. Energy Density This figure indicates the performance of a battery related to its weight. The higher the energy density, the more energy can be stored and then released again. The unit of energy density is watt hours per kilogram [Wh/kg] and is calculated from the electrical work [Wh] and the weight [kg] of the battery. The range of an electric vehicle can be determined from the energy density. Life The cycle stability of a high-voltage battery is set at a total of 3,000 cycles over a period of 10 years, i.e. 300 cycles/year. On the basis of this property, so-called automotive batteries, i.e. batteries for use in a high-voltage vehicle, cannot be compared with the consumer batteries used in laptops or mobile telephones. Efficiency The efficiency indicates how much of the energy that is invested into charging can be made useful again when the battery is discharged. A battery can never have 100% efficiency since a small part of the charging energy is released in the form of heat (charge loss). Self Study Program , Basics of Electric Vehicles Design and Function, 2013 Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.

25 Powertrain Solutions for a Better Future Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct ,

26 Electrification Level of EVs Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

27 Electric Vehicle Characteristics Must have one or more electric machines (EMs) Must have an energy storage system (ESS) other than the fossil fuel tank. The EMs must provide propulsion power (partially or full) Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct ,

28 HEV Architectures - Series Hybrid ICE and EM are connected in series Basic components: ICE, electric generator (EM1), electric motor (EM2), and ESS (battery) Only EM provides torque to the final drive Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

29 HEV Architectures - Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

30 HEV Architectures - Series Hybrid Suitable for: mining vehicle, city bus (with frequent start-stop) Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

31 HEV Architectures - Parallel Hybrid Engine and electric motor are connected with fixed speed ratio. Both ICE and EM can provide torque to final driving, separately or together. Usually includes a transmission. Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

32 HEV Architectures - Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

33 HEV Architectures - Operation Modes of Parallel Hybrid Architecture Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

34 HEV Architectures - Parallel Hybrid: Pros and Cons Example: Honda insight Hybrid, VW Jetta Hybrid, Acura RLX Hybrid, Nissan Pathfinder Hybrid Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

35 HEV Architectures - Power Split Hybrid Architectures Double connection between the engine and the final drive: mechanical and electrical. Consist of one or more power split device (PSD). Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

36 HEV Architectures - PSD Explained Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

37 HEV Architectures - Power-Split Hybrid: Pros and Cons Examples: Toyota Prius, Lexus CT200h, Lexus RX400h. 32 Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

38 HEV Architectures - Compound Hybrid Architectures Able to operate in more than one basic hybrid modes in a single architecture. May include Series/parallel, series/power-split, parallelparallel and many other configurations. Increased cost and complexity. Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

39 HEV Architectures - Compound Hybrid - Chevy Volt 1st Gen Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

40 GENEL HATIRLATMA What is the difference between an AC motor and a DC motor? / July 29, 2011 Q&A While both A.C. and D.C. motors serve the same function of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy, they are powered, constructed and controlled differently. 1 The most basic difference is the power source. A.C. motors are powered from alternating current (A.C.) while D.C. motors are powered from direct current (D.C.), such as batteries, D.C. power supplies or an AC-to-DC power converter. D.C wound field motors are constructed with brushes and a commutator, which add to the maintenance, limit the speed and usually reduce the life expectancy of brushed D.C. motors. A.C. induction motors do not use brushes; they are very rugged and have long life expectancies. The final basic difference is speed control. The speed of a D.C. motor is controlled by varying the armature winding s current while the speed of an A.C. motor is controlled by varying the frequency, which is commonly done with an adjustable frequency drive control. 2 1.Saeed Niku. Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Page Robert S. Carrow. Electrician s technical reference: Variable frequency drives. Delmar Thomson Learning, Page 45 Published by Ohio Electric Motors: 673#ixzz2ezsrNvI3

41 DOĞRU AKIM ÖN BİLGİ Doğru Akım: Zamanla yönü ve şiddeti değişmeyen akıma doğru akım denir. İngilizce Direct Current kelimelerinin kısaltılması DC ile gösterilir. DC üreten kaynaklar şu şekilde sıralanabilir: Pil: Kimyasal enerjiyi elektrik enerjisine dönüştüren araçlara pil adı verilir. Akü: Kimyasal yolla elektrik enerjisi üreten araçtır. Dinamo: Hareket enerjisini DC elektrik enerjisine çeviren ünitelerdir. Doğrultmaç devresi: Alternatif akım elektrik enerjisini DC elektrik enerjisine çeviren devrelerdir. Güneş pili: Güneş enerjisini DC elektrik enerjisine çeviren elemanlara güneş pili denir. Doğru akımın yaygın olarak kullanıldığı alanlar: Haberleşme cihazlarında (telekomünikasyonda) Radyo, teyp, televizyon, gibi elektronik cihazlarda Redresörlü kaynak makinelerinde Maden arıtma (elektroliz) ve maden kaplamacılığında (galvonoteknik ) Elektrikli taşıtlarda (tren, tramvay, metro) Elektro-mıknatıslarda DC elektrik motorlarında

42 ALTERNATİF AKIM Alternatif Akımın Tanımı Zaman içerisinde yönü ve şiddeti belli bir düzen içerisinde değişen akıma alternatif akım denir. Alternatif Akımın Elde Edilmesi Alternatif akım ya da gerilimin elde edilmesinde alternatör denilen aygıtlar kullanılır. Not: Bilindiği gibi DC akım/gerilim değeri sabittir. Örneğin 1 V DC dediğimizde DC gerilimin 1 V olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Fakat AC de akım/ve gerilim değerleri sürekli değişmektedir. Bu yüzden AC yi ifade etmek için çeşitli değerler kullanılmaktadır. Bunlar ani değer, maksimum (tepe) değer, tepeden tepeye değer, ortalama değer ve etkin değerdir. Frekans: Frekans, sinüs sinyalinin bir saniyede tekrarlanan saykıl sayısıdır. Periyot: Bir saykılın gerçekleşmesi için geçen süreye periyot denir. Periyot birimi saniye (s) dir ve T ile gösterilir.

43 TEMEL BİLGİLER Alternatif Akım Sinüs dalgasında periyot Sinüs dalgasında alternans

44 Power Electronics Inverter: convert DC to AC DC/DC converters: increase or decrease battery voltages Rectifiers (on-board chargers): convert AC from electric grid to DC. Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct ,

45 Güç Kontrol Sistemleri Elektrikli araç teknolojileri içerisinde güç elektroniği devreleri önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor), IGBT (Insulated gate bipolar transistor), IGCT (Insulated gate controlled thyristor) ve MCT (mos controlled thyristor) gibi yarı iletken anahtarların geliştirilmesi ile elektrik sistemlerinin kontrolünde önemli gelişmeler sağlanmıştır. Tahrik sisteminin kontrolü, üretilen AC gerilimin DC ye çevrilmesi, yakıt pili çıkış geriliminin düzenlenmesi, akü şarjının uygun yöntemlerle sağlanması vb., klasik güç elektroniği devrelerinin çeşitli kontrol yöntemleri kullanılarak kontrol edilmesiyle başarılmaktadır. Elektrikli araçlarda kullanılan güç kontrol sistemleri, klasik güç elektroniği devrelerinden oluşmaktadır. Bu devreler 4 ana başlık altında incelenebilir; Doğrultucular (AC/DC) Çeviriciler (DC/DC) Eviriciler (DC/AC) Kıyıcılar (AC/AC) AC/AC kıyıcılar, elektrikli araçlarda uygulama alanına sahip olmadığından bu bölümde incelenmeyecektir. Elektrikli Araçlar, TÜBİTAK

46 Güç Kontrol Sistemleri Doğrultucular Alternatif gerilimin doğru gerilime dönüştürülmesinde doğrultucular kullanılmaktadır. Doğrultucular kontrollü ve kontrolsüz olmak üzere 2 gruba ayrılmaktadırlar. İsimlerinden de anlaşılacağı gibi kontrolsüz doğrultucularda çıkış gerilimi kontrol edilmemekte ve ortalama çıkış gerilimi AC kaynaktaki gerilim değişimlerinden ve yükten etkilenmektedir. Kontrollü doğrultucularda ise kullanılan yarı iletken anahtarların anahtarlama açılarının kontrol edilmesiyle çıkış gerilimi ayarlanabilir sabit değerlerde tutulabilmektedir. HEA larda doğrultucular, AC generatör kullanılması durumunda, çıkış geriliminin DC baraya bağlanmadan önce doğrultulmasında kullanılır. Bu doğrultucuların AC/DC dönüşümünün yanında bir diğer önemli özelliği enerji yönetim (energy management) sistemi olarak ta görev yapmasıdır. Pek çok uygulamada DC baraya bağlı olan akülerin şarj ve deşarjının kontrolünde DC/DC çevirici kullanmak yerine, çıkış gerilimi değiştirilebilir doğrultucular kullanılmaktadır. Elektrikli Araçlar, TÜBİTAK

47 Güç Kontrol Sistemleri Çeviriciler DC-DC çevirici olarak da tanımlanan çeviriciler çoğunlukla regüle edilmemiş DC gerilim kaynağının, kontrollü bir biçimde sabit DC gerilime dönüştürülmesi için kullanılırlar. Regüle edilmemiş DC gerilim, genellikle bir kontrolsüz doğrultucu ile sağlanır. Aküler ve yakıt pilleri de regüle edilmemiş DC gerilim kaynağıdır. Çeviricilerin genel çalışma prensibi belirli bir periyot içerisinde yarı iletken anahtarın iletime ve kesime geçmesi ve sonucunda da ortalaması giriş geriliminden farklı bir çıkış geriliminin sağlanmasıdır. Eviriciler Eviriciler DC giriş gerilimini AC ye çeviren güç elektroniği devreleridir. Elektrikli taşıt tahrik sistemlerinde, 3 fazlı gerilim beslemeli PWM (Darbe genişlik modülasyonu) eviriciler asenkron, sürekli mıknatıslı motor kontrollerinde kullanılmaktadır. Günümüzde anahtarlama elamanı olarak çoğunlukla IGBT ler tercih edilmektedir. Genel olarak tüm güç elektroniği devrelerinde kullanılan anahtarların nominal gerilimi, anahtarlama sırasında oluşan gerilim yükselmeleri nedeniyle, bara geriliminin iki katı kadar seçilir. İdeal eviricinin çıkış gerilimi sinüzoidal dalga şeklinde olmalıdır. Ancak uygulamada tam olarak sinüzoidal değildir ve harmonikler içerir. Çıkış gerilimindeki bu harmonikler, yüksek hızlı yarı iletken anahtarların çeşitli anahtarlama teknikleri kullanılarak kontrol edilmesiyle azaltılabilir. Bunun yanında, bazı uygulamalarda, çıkışı kare dalga olan eviricilerde kullanılmaktadır. Anahtarlama için kullanılan çeşitli PWM tekniklerinden bazıları, sinüzoidal PWM, histerisiz bant PWM ve uzay vektörü PWM dir. Elektrikli Araçlar, TÜBİTAK

48 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Topologies for electric wheel drives in road vehicles R. Fischer, Schaeffler s wheel hub drives, 2014

49 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Elektrikli araç tahrik sistemlerinde başlıca 4 elektrik motoru kullanılmaktadır. DC motor Asenkron motor Sürekli mıknatıslı motor Anahtarlamalı relüktans motoru Induction machines permanent magnet (PM) synchronous machines PM brushless DC machines and switched reluctance machines (SRMs) EV lerde Kullanılan Elektrik Motorları Asenkron Motor (Induction Motor) Sürekli Mıknatıslı Fırçasız Senkron Motor (BLSM) Sürekli Mıknatıslı Fırçasız DA Motoru (BLDCM) Anahtarlamalı Relüktans Motoru (SRM) Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

50 Electric Machines (EM) Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct ,

51 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Advances in electric machines, along with progress in power electronics, are the key enablers for electric, hybrid electric, and plugin hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Induction machines, permanent magnet (PM) synchronous machines, PM brushless DC machines, and switched reluctance machines (SRMs) have all been considered in various types of vehicle powertrain applications [1 20]. Brushed DC motors, once popular for traction applications such as in streetcars, are no longer considered a proper choice due to the bulky construction, low efficiency, the need for maintenance of the brush and commutator, high electromagnetic interference (EMI), low reliability, and limited speed range. When using electric motors for powertrain applications, there are a few possible configurations. Today s electric motors, combined with inverters and associated controllers, have a wide speed range for constant torque operations, and an extended speed range for constant power operations, which make the design of the powertrain much easier. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

52 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Depending on the configuration of the hybrid powertrain, the design and selection of electric motor drives can also be different. For example, for series hybrid vehicles, the powertrain motor needs to be able to provide the required torque and speed for all driving conditions. Hence, the size of the motor will be fairly large, usually rated at 100 kw or more for passenger cars. A PM motor or an induction motor is the preferred choice. For mild and micro hybrids, only a small-size motor of a few kilowatts is required. Therefore the motor can be a claw pole DC motor, or a switched reluctance motor. Traditional automatic transmission or continuous variable transmission (CVT) used in conventional cars are no longer required in electric vehicles (EVs) and many HEVs. However, a fixed gear ratio speed reduction is often necessary. This is due to the fact that a high-speed motor has smaller size and less weight than a low-speed machine. A two-speed automatic transmission may be beneficial in saving vehicle energy consumption. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

53 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Senkron ve Asenkron Kavramı Alternatif akım makinelerinin isimlendirilmesi ürettikleri döner manyetik alanın (stator manyetik alanı), döner mekanik kısım (rotor) ile eş zamanlı oluşu yada olmayışına göredir. Senkron: Uyumlu Olan, Eş zamanlı olan Asenkron: Uyumlu Olmayan, Eş zamanlı olmayan Senkron Makine: Stator manyetik alanı döner kısım devrine eşit olan makine. Asenkron Makine: Stator manyetik alanı döner kısım devrinden her zaman büyük olan makine.

54 ASEKRON MOTORLAR Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

55 ASEKRON MOTORLAR Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

56 ASEKRON MOTORLAR Basit Yapı Kolay Üretim Ucuzluk Oturmuş teknoloji Moment üretim kapasitesi orta düzeyde Göreli olarak yüksek ısınma Geri kazanım özelliği orta düzeyde Örnek uygulama: TeslaEV Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

57 ASEKRON MOTORLAR Induction Motor (Asenkron Motor) Drives Induction motors are popular choices for traction applications due to their robust construction, low cost, wide field weakening range, and high reliability. Especially for EVs, PHEVs, and HEVs that requires a high-power motor, induction motors can provide more reliable operation than other types of electric motors [21 37]. However, when compared to PM motors, induction motors have lower efficiency and less torque density. Typical induction motors used for traction applications are squirrel cage induction motors. An inverter is used to control the motor so that the desired torque can be delivered for a given driving condition at a certain speed. Advanced control methodologies, such as vector control, direct torque control, and field-oriented control, are popular in induction motor control for traction applications. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

58 Principle of Induction Motors The basic structure of an induction machine is shown in Figure 1. The two main parts of an induction motor are the stator (which houses the winding) and the rotor (which houses the squirrel cage). Both stator and rotor are made out of laminated silicon steel with thickness of 0.35, 0.5, or 0.65 mm. The laminated steel sheets are first stamped with slots and are then stacked together to form the stator and rotor, respectively. Windings are put inside the stator slots while the rotor is cast in aluminum. There are some additional components to make up the whole machine: the housing that encloses and supports the whole machine, the shaft that transfers torque, the bearing, an optional position sensor, and a cooling mechanism (such as a fan or liquid cooling tubes). Figure 1 An induction motor: (a) rotor and stator assembly; (b) rotor squirrel cage; and (c) cross-sectional view of an ideal induction motor with six conductors on the stator Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

59 Hence, we will have three approaches for changing the speed of an induction motor: change the number of poles, change frequency, and change slip: 1. Change the number of poles: The stator winding is designed such that, by changing the winding configuration, the number of poles will change. For example, some induction motors are designed as 4/6, 6/8, or 4/8 pole capable. While changing the number of poles has been used in controlling the induction motor speed in the past, it is used less and less today due to the complexity of the stator winding configuration and low efficiency. 2. Change the frequency of the supply voltage: This is the most popular method for controlling induction motor speed in modern drive systems, including traction drives. 3. Change slip: Since the electromagnetic torque of an induction motor is closely related to slip, there are a few ways to change the slip to control induction motor speed: (a) Change the magnitude of the supply voltage: As the voltage is changed, the speed of the motor is also changed. However, this method provides limited variable speed range since the torque is proportional to the square of voltage. (b) Change stator resistance or stator leakage inductance: This can be done by connecting a resistor or inductor in series with the stator winding. (c) Change rotor resistance or rotor leakage inductance: This is only applicable to wound-rotor induction motors. (d) Apply an external voltage to the rotor winding: This voltage has the same frequency as the rotor back emf or rotor current. Modern, doubly fed wind power generators belong to this group. This method is only applicable to wound-rotor induction motors. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

60 PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR DRIVES PM motors are the most popular choices for EV and HEV powertrain applications due to their high efficiency, compact size, high torque at low speeds, and ease of control for regenerative braking [43 90]. The PM motor in a HEV powertrain is operated either as a motor during normal driving or as a generator during regenerative braking and power splitting, as required by the vehicle operations and control strategies. PM motors with higher power densities are also now increasingly the choice for aircraft, marine, naval, and space applications. The most commercially used PM material in traction drive motors is neodymium ferrite boron (Nd Fe B). This material has a very low Curie temperature and high temperature sensitivity. It is often necessary to increase the size of magnets to avoid demagnetization at high temperatures and high currents. On the other hand, it is advantageous to use as little PM material as possible in order to reduce the cost without sacrificing the performance of the machine. Not: Curie sıcaklığı, ferromanyetik bir maddenin, kalıcı mıknatıslığını yitirip paramanyetik hale geçtiği kritik sıcaklıktır. Curie sıcaklığının üstünde, ısı enerjisi manyetik momentlerin rastgele yönelmelerine sebep olur ve madde paramanyetik hale geçer. Paramanyetizma alanında çalışan Pierre Curie'nin anısına bu sıcaklığa Curie sıcaklığı denmektedir. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

61 PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR DRIVES Basic Configuration of PM Motors When PMs are used to generate the magnetic field in an electric machine, it becomes a PM motor. Both DC and AC motors can be made with PMs. Only PM synchronous motors and PM brushless DC motors are chosen for modern traction drives. A PM synchronous motor contains a rotor and a stator, with the stator similar to that of an induction motor, and the rotor contains the PMs. From the section on induction motors, we know that the three-phase winding, with three-phase symmetrical AC supply, will generate a rotating magnetic field. To generate a constant average torque, the rotor must follow the stator field and rotate at the same synchronous speed. This is also why these machines are called PM synchronous motors. There are different ways to place the magnets on the rotor, as shown in Figure 2. If the magnets are glued on the surface of the rotor, it is called a surfaced-mounted PM motor or SPM motor. If the magnets are inserted inside the rotor in the pre-cut slots, then it is called an interior permanent magnet motor or IPM motor. For a SPM motor, the rotor can be a solid piece of steel since the rotor iron core itself is not close to the air gap, hence the eddy current loss and hysteresis loss due to slot/tooth harmonics can be neglected. For the IPM motor, the rotor needs to be made out of laminated silicon steel since the tooth/slot harmonics will generate eddy current and hysteresis losses. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

62 PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR DRIVES Basic Configuration of PM Motors (cont.) Due to the large air gap as well as the fact that the magnets have a permeability similar to that of air, SPM motors have similar direct-axis reactance xd and quadrature-axis reactance xq. On the other hand, IPM motors have different xd and xq. This difference will generate a so-called reluctance torque. It is worth pointing out that although there is a reluctance torque component, it does not necessarily mean an IPM motor will have a higher torque rating than a SPM motor for the same size and same amount of magnetic material used. This is because, in IPM motors, in order to keep the integrity of the rotor laminations, there are so-called magnetic bridges that will have leakage magnetic flux. So for the same amount of magnet material used, a SPM motor will always have higher total flux. There are many different configurations for IPM motors as shown in Figure 3. Figure 2: Surfacemounted magnets and interior magnets: left, SPM motor; right, IPM motor. 1 magnet; 2 iron core; 3 shaft; 4 nonmagnet material; 5 non magnet material Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

63 PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR DRIVES Basic Principle and Operation of PM Motors The no-load magnetic field of PM machines is shown in Figure 3. When the rotor is driven by an external source (such as an engine), the rotating magnetic field will generate three-phase voltage in the three-phase windings. This is the generator mode operation of the PM machine. When operated as a motor, the three-phase windings, similar to those of an induction motor, are supplied with either a trapezoidal form of current (brushless DC) or sinusoidal current (synchronous AC). These currents generate a magnetic field that is rotating at the same speed as the rotor, or synchronous speed. By adjusting the frequency of the stator current, the speed of the rotor or the synchronous speed can be adjusted accordingly. The torque is the attraction between the rotor magnetic field and the stator magnetic field in the circumferential direction. Hence, at no-load conditions, the rotor and the stator field are almost lined up. When the angle between the rotor field and the stator field reaches 90 electric degrees, the maximum torque is reached in SPM motors. For IPM motors, the maximum torque occurs at an angle slightly larger than 90 due to the existence of reluctant torque. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

64 PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR DRIVES Figure 3: Four commonly used IPM rotor configurations: (a) circumferential-type magnets suitable for brushless DC or synchronous motor; (b) circumferential-type magnets for line-start synchronous motor; (c) rectangular slots IPM motor; and (d) V-type slots IPM motor Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

65 Magnetic Circuit Analysis of IPM Motors Although today s motor design is usually aided by finite element analysis (FEA), the initial design stages are still realized through analytical methods. Air-gap flux is one of the most important parameters of PM motor designs and equivalent magnetic circuit analysis is used to calculate the air-gap flux in PM motors. For SPM motors, the equivalent magnetic circuit is straightforward. But for IPM motors, the PMs are buried inside the rotor laminations, with magnets inserted into the pre-stamped slots. This arrangement protects the magnets from flying away from the rotor surface due to centrifugal force, fatigue, and aging of material during operation of the motor. Another advantage of IPM motors is that rectangular (cuboid) magnets can be used to simplify the manufacturing process and reduce the cost of manufacturing PM material. Flux concentration structures (such as magnets arranged in a V-shape) are often used to increase air-gap flux density in IPM motors [85]. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

66 Magnetic Circuit Analysis of IPM Motors Calculating air-gap flux in IPM motors is somewhat troublesome due to the existence of so-called magnetic bridges. When an integrated lamination is used for IPM motors, magnetic short circuits exist around the edges of the magnets. These magnetic bridges are designed to enhance the integrity of the rotor. The magnetic bridges introduce magnetic short circuits and complicate the design and analysis of IPM motors. On the other hand, there are also concerns about how to limit the leakage flux in these magnetic bridges while maintaining the mechanical strength of the rotor. The flux leakage and flux distribution in the magnetic bridges can be precisely obtained through numerical methods such as FEA. However, FEA can only be performed after the preliminary dimensions of the motor have been determined. FEA is also cumbersome and time consuming in the early stages of PM motor design where numerous iterations are usually performed. Analytical calculation and analysis of all types of PM motors are essential in their early design stage. This section discusses the analytical method to calculate the air-gap flux of IPM machines using an equivalent magnetic circuit model taking into account the assembly gap and saturation in the steel. Factors that affect the flux leakage in an IPM motor will also be discussed. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

67 Sizing of Magnets in PM Motors Sizing of magnets is one of the critical tasks of PM machine design. This section discusses the analytical methods to calculate the volume and size of magnets for PM motors. The proposed methods are validated by FEA and experiments [91]. The formulas will be derived based on a set of assumptions and then modified based on practical design considerations. The assumptions include the following: Magnetic pole salience can be neglected The stator resistance is negligible. Saturation can be neglected. The air-gap flux is sinusoidally distributed. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives, ISBN , 2011.

68 ANAHTARLAMALI RELÜKTANS MOTOR Çok Basit Yapı Kolay Üretim Ucuz Moment üretim kapasitesi orta düzeyde Moment dalgalılığı ve yüksek gürültü Geri kazanım özelliği düşük Akademik merak konusu Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

69 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Doğru Akım Motorlar DC motorlar, bir manyetik alan içerisinde bir iletkenden akım geçirilmesi sonucunda, o iletkene kuvvet etki etmesi prensibiyle çalışırlar. DC motorlarda manyetik alanın oluşturulması için statorda bir alan sargısı ve rotorda da dönme hareketinin sağlanması içinde bir endüvi sargısı bulunur. DC gerilim dönen kısma da uygulandığından fırça kolektör düzeneği kullanılmaktadır. Bu düzenek DC motorun bakım gereksinimini arttırmakta ve sanayide olduğu gibi EA larda da kullanımının azalmasına neden olmaktadır. DC motorlar alan sargısının türüne göre serbest uyarmalı, seri uyarmalı, paralel uyarmalı ve kompund uyarmalı olmak üzere 4 e ayrılırlar. Şekilde DC motor türlerinin şematik resimleri görülmektedir. Serbest uyarmalı DC motorlarda, uyarma sargısı ve besleme sargısı elektriksel olarak birbirinden bağımsız olan iki kaynaktan beslenir. Seri uyarmalı DC motor da uyarma sargısı ve endüvi sargısı birbirine seri, paralelde ise paralel olarak bağlanmıştır. Kompund motor bu iki türün birleştirilmesiyle elde edilir. "ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR", TÜBİTAK Marmara Araştırma Merkezi Enerji Sistemleri ve Çevre Araştırma Enstitüsü, Eylül 2003

70 FIRÇASIZ SENKRON MOTOR Fırçasız Senkron Motor Fırçasız Doğru Akım Motoru Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

71 FIRÇASIZ SENKRON MOTOR Fırçasız Senkron Motor Fırçasız Doğru Akım Motoru Kolay Üretim (?) Mıknatıs montajı mıknatıslama (IPM, SM) Pahalı (Çin mıknatıs kotası) Moment üretim kapasitesi yüksek düzeyde Geri kazanım özelliği yüksek Uygulama örnekleri: Nissan Leaf, Toyota Prius, BMW Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

72 Klasik ICE Teknolojisi ve Elektrik Motoru Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

73 Klasik ICE Teknolojisi ve Elektrik Motoru Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

74 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Traction motors integrated into the transmission dominate in the hybrid and electric vehicles currently produced. Conventional electric drives are currently designed as center drives. The electric motor can be used in combination with a lightweight differential to control the distribution of torque to individual wheels. This type of electric axle is particularly suitable for sporty electric vehicles and vehicles suitable for covering long distances with a plug-in hybrid drive. R. Fischer, Schaeffler s wheel hub drives, 2014

75 Wheel Hub Drive Wheel hub drives are particularly attractive for small, highly maneuverable city vehicles with battery-electric drive. The use of a wheel hub drive has various advantages for drivers: Usable space is gained in the vehicle body. No engine compartment is required, which means new body designs are possible. The wheel turning angle can be increased because drive shafts are not required. Maneuverability is significantly improved from the customer s perspective. This also applies when the vehicle has a driven rear axle because targeted assisted steering with torque vectoring can be operated on road surfaces with a low friction coefficient. Driving pleasure and safety are increased because the control quality of the drive is higher than that of central drive systems because power is transmitted directly without a transmission and side shafts. These conventional target values of automobile development will be decisive for achieving customer acceptance of small city cars. In our opinion, electric vehicles will not be marketable on solely rational grounds small traffic area and a good CO2 footprint. Driving will be significantly simpler: For example, when starting on ice only the maximum transmissible torque is applied even if the accelerator pedal is fully depressed. Last but not least, passive safety is also increased because conventional drive units with high masses fitted in the engine compartment will no longer enter the vehicle interior if a frontal impact occurs [2]. R. Fischer, Schaeffler s wheel hub drives, 2014

76 ÖN BİLGİ: ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Cross-section through the drive positioned close to the wheel from the FAIR project Design of Schaeffler s wheel hub drive R. Fischer, Schaeffler s wheel hub drives, 2014

77 TO SUM UP: Wheel-hub Drive Independent control of each driving wheel Elimination of differential and driving shafts. Popular design in electric scooters. Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

78 TO SUM UP: Wheel-hub Drive Derivatives The EMs are connected to wheels through reducer gears and drive shaft. Mercedes-Benz SLS AMC E-Cell vehicle Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

79 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI Alternatif 1 Alternatif 2 Alternatif 3 Alternatif 4 Alternatif 5 Alternatif 6 Alternatif 7 Üretici Firma UQM UQM Ansaldo Ansaldo Solectria Enova MES Model Numarası SR 218N SR 286 A1H207C A1H256B AC55 EDM90 MES Tip Fırçasız PM Fırçasız PM Asenkron Asenkron Asenkron Asenkron asenkron Sürekli Güç [kw] Maksimum Güç [kw] ,8 Sürekli Tork [Nm] Maksimum Tork [Nm] Maksimum Hız [rpm] Maksimum Verim [%] Çap [mm] Uzunluk [mm] Ağırlık [kg] Kontrolcü Ağırlığı [kg] 15,9 15, , Kontrolcü Boyutları 380x365x11 380x365x11 326x212x11 430x330x x320x x235x x518x201 [mm] Voltaj [VDC] Tırmanma Kabiliyeti % 15lik Egim [E/H] H E H E H E %15 lik Eğimde 10km/h Hıza Çıkma Süresi [s] s s s Maksimum Tırmanma Kabiliyeti 11% 29% 12% 23% 11% 15% Maksimum Eğimde İvmelenme Zamanı [s] s 5 32 s s 5 27 s s Düz Yolda 40km/h Hıza Çıkana Kadar Geçen Zaman [s] 10 s 4 s 9 s 5 s 10 s 7.2 s s

80 ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI "ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR", TÜBİTAK Marmara Araştırma Merkezi Enerji Sistemleri ve Çevre Araştırma Enstitüsü, Eylül 2003

81 KIYASLAMA

82 KIYASLAMA (dvm.)

83 KIYASLAMA (dvm.) Table: Typical Electric Motors kw Parameters

84 KIYASLAMA (dvm.) Table: Electric Motors Properties Comparison

85 KIYASLAMA (dvm.) Table 1. BEV and PHEV parameters comparison

86 Energy Management System (EMS) EMS uses hardware and software controls to optimize the energy efficiency and drivability. - Software-based high level supervisory control (HLSC) Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct ,

87 Energy Management System (EMS) The ESS could be battery, ultracapacitor, and hydrogen tank (for fuel cell). Battery types used in EVs: Lead-acid, Nickel-metal hydride, Lithium ion Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct ,

88 BEV Architecture Front and Rear Drive Capable of FWD, RWD, and AWD Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

89 BEV Architecture Front and Rear Drive Capable of FWD, RWD, and AWD Electric Vehicle Architectures, Nan Qin, Electric Vehicle Transportation Center, Oct

90 EK OKUMA

91 HİBRİD ARAÇLAR BELT ALTERNATOR STARTER SYSTEMS The belt system, commonly called the belt alternator starter (BAS), is the least expensive system that can be used and still claim that the vehicle is a hybrid. For many buyers, cost is a major concern and the BAS system allows certain hybrid features without the cost associated with an entire redesign of the engine and power train. Consumers will be able to upgrade from conventional models to BAS hybrids at a reasonable cost and will get slightly better fuel economy. Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, FIGURE: A reversible starter/alternator is used to provide idle stop function to conventional vehicles. This very limited and low cost system is called a micro-hybrid drive.

92 HİBRİD ARAÇLAR FIGURE: This chart shows what is occurring during various driving conditions in a BAS-type hybrid. Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.

93 HİBRİD ARAÇLAR FIGURE: The components of a typical belt alternator-starter (BAS) system. Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.

94 EV vs. ICEV Well-to-Wheel Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

95 Gerçekten Sıfır Salım (ZE) Olanaklı mı? Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

96 Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

97 Elektrikli Araç Akü kapasitesi 24 kwh(iyi durumda batarya) (0.25kWh/kg) Elektrik Motor verimi (ortalama): %85 Tekerleğe aktarılan enerji: 20.4 kwh Düz yolda ortalama güç: 20.4 kw Ortalama hız: 130 km/h Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 130 km Benzinli Araç Depo hacmi: 45 l Özgül Ağırlık: 0.75 kg/l Benzin ağırlığı: kg Benzin enerji yoğunluğu: 45MJ/kg Toplam enerji yaklaşık: 1520MJ= 422kWh Tekerleğe aktarılan (verim %20 kabul edilerek): 84.4 kwh Düz yolda ortalama güç : 20.4 kw Ortalama hız: 130 km/h Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 537 km (EV den yaklaşık 4 kat fazla) Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

98 Benzinli Araç Enerji Tüketimi = Ortalama Tüketim x Enerji Yoğunluğu Enerji Tüketimi = l/km x 32 MJ/l = 2.4 MJ/km = kwh/km Mekanik Verim %20 alınırsa: 2.4 MJ/km x 0.2 = 0.48 MJ/km Elektrikli Araç Doldurma/boşaltma verimi: %86 Elektrik motoru verimi (ortalama): %85 Enerji tüketimi: 0.48 MJ/km/ (0.85 x 0.86) = 0.65 MJ/km Geri kazanımlı frenleme ile enerji tüketimi bir miktar azalacaktır. Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

99 ELEKTRİKLİ ARACIN EKONOMİKLİĞİ OTOPARKTA ŞARJ Evimizde 6.04 kwh/gün = 6.04 kwh/gün x 365=2204 kwh/yıl Elektrikli araç: 2204 kwh/yıl: Elektrikli araç için km = 600 TL Otopark ücreti: 100 şarj/yıl x 5 TL/gün = 500 TL Hizmet Bedeli: 100 şarj/yıl x 2,5 TL/gün = 250 TL Toplam: 1350 TL Benzinli araç: Benzinli bir araç (7 lt/100 km) = 7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL EVDE ŞARJ Elektrikli araç: 2204 kwh/yıl: Elektrikli araç için km = 600 TL TL sanayi farkı Toplam: 800 TL Benzinli araç: Benzinli bir araç (7 lt/100 km) = 7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL Yaklaşık %280 tasarruf Yaklaşık %100 tasarruf Fatura Bilgisi: 139 kwh =37,8 TL (1 kwh = 0,27 TL); Tarih: 20/11/2010

100 Functional block diagram of a typical electric propulsion system Mehrdad Ehsani, Yimin Gao, Ali Emadi, "Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles", 2010.

101 Motors, Controllers, and Regenerative Braking T H I S P R E S E N TAT I O N H A S B E E N U P L O A D E D T O T H E W I K I.

102 Brushed DC vs. Brushless Advantages Construction is simple Implementation is simple No controller required Disadvantages Brushes cause friction Brushes wear down Startup is imperfect

103 Brushed DC vs. Brushless Why Brushless is Better No brushes, no friction No parts to replace Position is always known Startup is consistent How it works: Hall effect sensors are used to determine the location of the stator relative to the rotor 3 Hall effect sensors completely determine location A computer tracks where the the motor is now and where it will be next Pulses sent to each each of three phases to move the motor to the next position Rinse and repeat

104 Hall Effect Sensor How they work A current is applied perpendicular to the expected magnetic field When magnetic flux passes perpendicular to current, it creates a force This force displaces the electrons, creating separation of charge This voltage is related to the strength of the magnetic field What would happen if the sensor were turned so that the magnetic flux ran parallel to the current?

105 Motor Controller Main Task Read hall effect sensors, determine location Get desired speed from user Set the next phase to occur to match that speed Extra tasks Limit acceleration Monitor temperature

106 Regenerative Braking Basic Concept A motor and a generator are essentially the same When you apply the brakes, the motor switches into a generator The detail (the brake has just been pressed) The terminals of the motor are disconnected from power, and connected to to a inductor circuit Once current has built up in the inductor, it is shorted into a capacitor The capacitor is given time to charge The inductor circuit is reconnected Meanwhile the capacitor discharges through a resistor into the battery pack The cycle repeats continually v L dl dt (100 H)(20A 1 s ) 2000V

107 California's Advanced Clean Cars Midterm Review Appendix C: Zero Emission Vehicle and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology Assessment January 18, 2017

108 Table 1 - U.S. DOE EV Everywhere Grand Challenge 2022 Targets

109 Table 2 - U.S. DRIVE 2015 and 2020 Targets for Electrified Components30,31

110 Figure to 2021MY Unique ZEVs by Size, Type, and Range

111 Figure 6 - Electric Motor Positions in HEVs54 Shown in Figure 755 and Figure 856 are the Chevrolet Bolt EV powertrain and the second generation Chevrolet Volt electric powertrain to highlight some of the differences. The Bolt EV, like every currently available BEV, uses an electric motor attached to a single speed gearbox. The Volt, has two electric motors coupled with two planetary gear sets and two clutches in a unit that attaches to the vehicle s ICE. There is additional complexity in the Volt powertrain compared to that of the Bolt EV, both from a mechanical perspective and a controls perspective.

112 Figure 9 - Tesla Model S Rear Drive Unit Assembly57

113 Inverters The power requirements for PHEVs particularly blended PHEVs - and BEVs will require different drive motor inverters due to the differences in electric power capability of the drivetrains. Designs may be able to be scaled up in power, but the inverters will likely not be the same component. On-Board Chargers PHEVs and BEVs have different battery pack energy capacities and very often do not use OBCs with the same power level. Similar to inverters, the device may be able to be scaled up in power, but it will not be the same part. Potentially, smaller OBCs could be operated in parallel to provide more power, as Tesla has done in the past. This could allow an identical lower power level PHEV OBC component to be used in a BEV to provide the power level needed but necessarily results in a less optimized solution.

114 Table 4 - Electric Machine Type for MY16 and Known Expected MY17 ZEVs and TZEVs142,143

115