IIB INTERNATIONAL REFEREED ACADEMIC SOCIAL SCIENCES JOURNAL

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1 IIB INTERNATIONAL REFEREED ACADEMIC SOCIAL SCIENCES JOURNAL (ISO Doc. No: & ISO Doc. No: 12880)

2 GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT IIB JOURNAL 1. Our journal is a refereed and internationally indexed journal. Each paper is evaluated by two referees who are field experts. The articles not reported as issuable positively by two field referees aren t published in our journal. None of the author(s) can lay a claim on our journal in this case. Data, concerning the ethics committe of the studies, approved to be published in our journal, having the Ethics Committee Report, should be submitted to the editors in written and uploaded to the system with the article. Author(s) should take the responsibility of their articles, having the Ethics Committee Report, which were not submitted to the editors in written and were not uploaded to the system. None of the committes and the authorities in our journal are responsible for financial and emotional damage. The committes and the authorities in our journal do not have any legal obligations. Author(s) have accepted this situation beforehand. 2. Author(s) cannot make a demand for the journal s procedure concerning the academicians in journal s referee board and other boards and other authorities. Even if so, they aren t given any information, system process cannot be changed. All kinds of information about our journal can be obtained from the website of the journal www. iibdergisi.com 3. Our journal publishes three times a year, all articles in the relevant volume of journal are uploaded to the web system of the journal in one volume on the last day of the months April August December. All readers can download the articles from the journal s web system and the relevant paper article can be used on condition that our journal is cited. Readers can download all volumes of our journal for free. 4. All articles published in our journal are assured with certificate of quality (ISO Doc. No: & ISO Doc. No: 12880) and trademark patent (2015/ GE-17301). Articles published provide their authors with all kinds of legal rights and international assurance regarding their articles with quality, trademark, patent and doi information. II

3 5. Our journal has both printed and online version. All kinds of information about our journal can be obtained from the T.R. Ministry of Culture with the number Print ISSN NO: and Online ISSN NO: X 6. Reference within the text should be (Yılmaz, 2015: 1) or (Yılmaz et al. 2015:1). in the reference part YILMAZ, M., (2015).. It is indicated as Effect of Rewarding in Employees on Job and Performance, IIB, Issue:17, Volume:5, pp.1-2. All authors must follow the latest volumes of our journal and apply the print format of the published articles in their own papers. It is an obligation to indicate the access date of the internet sources and the last accessed full internet link in the references and below the page by giving numbers. 7. References are arranged by the Turkish alphabet. The printing format in the last volume of the journal should be taken into account by all authors 8. Our journal is an internationally indexed journal, and all articles and papers published in our journal are sent to relevant indices via by the publication date of the journal. 9. Original research, analysis, compilation, case study, project and book introduction have to be in an article format and these publications are also included. 10. All papers sent to the journal and uploaded to the system shouldn t be previously published, not evaluated and not rejected. All articles uploaded to the system are acknowledged that author(s) conform to these rules. Otherwise, our journal keeps its legal rights reserved. All material and moral responsibility regarding a negative situation belong to author(s). Our journal acts in line with the T.R. Law. III

4 THE NUMBER OF ARTICLES RESEARCH AND APPLICATION AN EVALUATION OF THE STUDENTS OPINIONS ON THE ASSOCIATE DEGREE PROGRAM IN HOME MANAGEMENT AT THE DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION OF THE OPEN EDUCATION FACULTY AT ANADOLU UNIVERSITY 1-25 Murat KORKMAZ, Ali Serdar YÜCEL, Hatice Nur GERMİR, Ercan ŞAHBUDAK, Erdal ŞEN, Nurullah KARTA COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIABLES CAUSING HAPPINESS IN TURKISH YOUTH EMPLOYMENT Murat KORKMAZ, Ali Serdar YÜCEL, Ercan ŞAHBUDAK, Hatice Nur GERMİR, Erdal ŞEN, Nurullah KARTA A STUDY ON DEVELOPING A SCALE DIRECTED TO THE PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL PERCEPTIONS OF EMPLOYEES Ercan ŞAHBUDAK, Murat KORKMAZ, Muhammet BEKÇİ, Meral ÖZTÜRK, Dilek ŞAHİN, Erdal ŞEN, Nurullah KARTA THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC GROWTH AND TRADE OPENNESS ON INCOME INEQUALITY: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS FOR TURKISH ECONOMY Davuthan GÜNAYDIN, Murat ÇETİN THE SPATIAL DIMENSION OF DEVELOPMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP ANALYSIS OF NUTS LEVEL-3 TR212 REGION Enver Erdinç DİNÇSOY BENEFITS AND RISKS OF OUTSOURCING IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Cemalettin HATİPOĞLU IV

5 CHIEF EDITOR Ayhan AYTAÇ ASSISTANT CHIEF EDITOR Gülten HERGÜNER Fatih ÇATIKKAŞ Fatma TEZEL ŞAHİN Adalet KANDIR Ali Serdar YÜCEL Yasemin KESKİN BENLİ EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Murat KORKMAZ ASSISTANTS OF EDITORS Nurgül ÖZDEMİR H.Arif TUNCEZ Yener ATASEVEN Gülten BULDUKER EDITOR Metin YAMAN Nezahat GÜÇLÜ Halil İbrahim BAHAR Murat ERCAN Işık BAYRAKTAR Serdar TOK Hülya Gülay OGELMAN Çetin YAMAN Nurhayat ÇELEBİ Murat DELİCE Taner AKÇACI Cemal ZEHİR Hatice Nur GERMİR Ahmet Burçin YERELİ Mehmet YÜCE Faruk ANDAÇ Ramazan ERDEM Dilaver TENGİLİMLİOĞLU Nilgün SARP Kürşad ZORLU Nalan AKDOĞAN Sevinç ÜRETEN Hacı Arif TUNCEZ İlker PARASIZ Salih ÖZTÜRK Yener ATASEVEN Süleyman ÖZDEMİR Mevhibe ALBAYRAK Ahmet Faruk AYSAN Muzaffer AKSOY Sefer GÜMÜŞ Volkan ÖNGEL Timur Han GÜR Ayşen TOKOL Pınar TINAZ Suat UĞUR Gülsen KIRLA Besim AKIN Yakup HACI Ebru Özgül GÜREL SYSTEM EDITORS AND MANAGERS Serdar TOK TECHNICAL EDITOR Burhan MADEN CONTACT EDITOR Ali Murat KIRIK Michael KUYUCU ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDITOR Gökşen ARAS TURKISH LANGUAGE EDITOR Gülsemin HAZER FIELD EDITORS Ahmet AKŞİT Barış KARAELMA Barış KAYA Çiler HATİPOĞLU E. Görkem KAYAALP ERSOY Ebru ÖZGÜR GÜLER Esin ÖZKAN Eva ŞARLAK Hakan SARIBAŞ Hava ÖZKAN İbrahim YILMAZ Kerime ÜSTÜNOVA Nevin KOYUNCU Neylan ZİYALAR Özlem CANKURTARAN ÖNTAŞ Ruhet GENÇ Seda ŞENGÜL Serkan EKİZ Sevgi MORALI Siret HÜRSOY Solmaz ZELYUT Tuğçe TUNA Ülkü GÜNEY Valide PAŞAYEVA INTERNATIONAL BOARD OF EDITORS Daniel L. RUBINFELD Mark M. SPIEGEL Robert S. PINDYCK Vibha GABA Nur Adiana HİAU ABDULLAH Adigun AGBAJE Kwame GYEKYE Joshua ALABİ Rashid SUMAİLA John KUADA Bayo OKUNDE Mawutor AVOKE Valentina DELLA CORTE Mohsen ELHAFSI Richard F. GHISELLI Mai ISMANDAR DATTA Min YOUNG LEE Marco MAFFEI Javier LIORENS MONTES David W. STEWART Patrick VELTE Ruhei WU Alhassan BUNYAMİNU Vincent OMACHONU Fabio SABATINI Bruna ECCHIA Nazrul ISLAM Grigorios L. KYRIAKOPOULOS Fernando MATIAS RECHE V

6 DISCIPLINES ³ ³ Bankingand Risk Management ³ ³ Econometrics ³ ³ Education Management ³ ³ Health Management and Economics ³ ³ Labour Economics ³ ³ Political Science ³ ³ Statistics ³ ³ Business ³ ³ Economics ³ ³ Finance ³ ³ International Relations ³ ³ LabourEconomicsandIndustrialRelations ³ ³ Public Administration ³ ³ Tourism Economics ³ ³ Commercial Law ³ ³ Economy ³ ³ Financial Accounting ³ ³ International Trade ³ ³ Management and Organization ³ ³ Sports Economics VI

7 MAGAZINE INDEXES AS SCREENING VII

8 OUR OTHER MAGAZINES 1. International Peer-Reviewed Journal of Nutrition Research 2. International Refereed Journal of Gynaecology And Maternal Child Health 3. International Refereed Journal of Orthopaedic Traumatology and Sports Medicine 4. International Refereed Journal of Marketing and Market Researches International Refereed Journal of Engineering and Natural & Applied Sciences 6. International Refereed Journal of Humanities and Academic Sciences 7. International Refereed Academic Journal of Sports, Health and Medical Sciences 8. International peer-reviewed Journal of Communication and Humanities Research 9. International Refereed Journal of Family, Child and Education International Refereed Journal of Nursing Research International Refereed Journal Of Architecture and Design International Journal Of Psychiatry and psychological Researches International Refereed Journal of Music Researches International Refereed Journal of Researches on Economy Management VIII

9 Dear Readers., Ayhan AYTAÇ Chief Editör We have published 6 valuable research and applied studies in this volume of our journal. We extend our sincere thanks to the esteemed scientists who made such a contribution to our journal. We aim to improve and reach the best with each volume thanks to our valuable readers, authors and followers who promote the journal with their all kinds of contributions and support. Upon the decision of editorial board, we decided to publish our December volume in October with the purpose of giving support to our authors who are in intense work process and prepare the file for associate professorship. Therefore, the evaluation process for the articles to be uploaded to the system later will take longer in the next volume. Application to Tomson ISI SSCI indices has been completed as of the 19th volume of the journal, and we have been included in evaluation process. We hope that our journal will reach to the place it deserves within the shortest time. Members of the referee board being expert in their own fields contributed to evaluation process and helped the swift process of this volume of the journal. We extend deepest gratitude to them. Our next volume will be uploaded to the system in 2016 covering the months of January, February and March as the 21st volume. I wish all our readers and valuable academicians of the science world welfare and joy. Best regards.. (In any kind of study requiring ethical board report in our journal, author(s) is/are obliged to enter the data of necessary ethical board report while uploading their publication in editorship and journal system. Our journal, publication board, grant holder, editorial office, referee and science boards do not undertake any responsibility for a problem to occur under any circumstances and conditions. Author(s) is/are obliged to give this information to journal in written. All liability in this issue belongs to author(s)). As per the 5187 of Press Law, material and emotional damage arising from the actions via published works, the content and legal responsibility of the publications published in our journal within the scope of m unilaterally belong to author(s). Our journal, executive board, referees, editor, science board and publisher don t accept these obligations. The scientifically valuable papers with scientific content which contribute to literature are accepted and published in our journal. Apart from this, the papers with political, legal and commercial content which are against the intellectual property rights are not accepted. in case of a possible negative situation, author(s) is/ IX

10 are regarded as accepting and undertaking all kinds of possible material and emotional damage beforehand. Therefore, our journal s management and other boards don t accept any responsibility regarding the second, third and other persons and institutions under any condition. in this sense, a legal sanction on our journal and its boards is out of question. The content and the current status of the papers belong to author(s) and our journal only takes part in the publication of these papers and contribution to literature. Respectfully announced to all readers, public and followers by publication. X

11 INTERNATIONAL REFEREED ACADEMIC SOCIAL SCIENCES JOURNAL AN EVALUATION OF THE STUDENT S OPINIONS ON THE ASSOCIATE DEGREE PROGRAM IN HOME MANAGEMENT AT THE DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION OF THE OPEN EDUCATION FACULTY AT ANADOLU UNIVERSITY 1 Murat KORKMAZ 1, Ali Serdar YÜCEL 2, Hatice Nur GERMİR 3, Ercan ŞAHBUDAK 4, Erdal ŞEN 5, Nurullah KARTA 6 1 Güven Group Inc. Finance Manager, Istanbul / Turkey 2 Fırat University Faculty of Sports Sciences, Elazığ / Turkey 3 Celal Bayar University School of Applied Sciences, Manisa / Turkey 4 Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Education, Department of Sociology, Sivas / Turkey 5 Istanbul Gelişim University, Faculty of Businees Administration and Social Sciences Business Administration (English) Department, Istanbul / Turkey 6 Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Education, Primary Department, Van / Turkey Abstract: This study aims to evaluate the students opinions about their Associate Degree Program in Home Management at the Department of Management and Organization of the Open Education Faculty at Anadolu University which offers distance education. For this purpose, a questionnaire with 33 questions was conducted with the participants of the study. The study firstly presents information on the aim, function, courses and the number of students of the Associate Degree Program in Home Management, which is an education program primarily for women. Then, the study addresses the topic of women in distance education in the world and in Turkey, provides statistical data on women and men regarding education and examines the positive and negative aspects of distance education for women. 796 participants, who were selected through random sampling method, took part in the study. Data obtained through the study were analyzed and assessed through the SPSS software. Then, Independent Samples t-test, ANOVA, Kruskal Wallis Test and Jonckheere-Terpstra Test were used in the analysis of the data. The study concluded that the demographic characteristics of the students (age, gender, income, occupation, place of residence etc.) varied to different degrees by the reasons for choosing the program, by the courses benefited in social life, in family relationships and in working life, by the opinions about the curriculum, by the use of computer and the Internet, and by the contribution of the program to getting a vocation, to developing oneself as an individual and to raising awareness about women s rights. Key Words: Education, Management, Home Management, Gender, Internet, Program, Variable Doi: /IIB (1) Corresponding Author: Ali Serdar YÜCEL, Fırat University, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Elazığ / Turkey alsetu_23@hotmail.com Arrival Date Date of Admission: Article Type: (Research and Practice) Conflict of Interest No Ethics Committee No 1

12 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) INTRODUCTION Education is an activity that has taken place throughout the history of humanity. During their entire lives, human beings learn something, develop themselves, and most importantly, meet their needs through what they learn. Therefore, the human is considered as a being that learns even in the womb of his/her mother. This applies to other living beings, too. However, the most important feature of the humans that distinguishes them from other living beings is that they can use all the advantages in the world in the best way possible. It is known that the style of education varies from one culture to another, from one belief to another, from one region to another, from one person to another, from one society to another, and most importantly, according to the current conditions. Education is the most natural right and it is required to be provided for individuals. Provision of education by the public sector for the benefit and self-development of the individuals throughout their life is an indicator of social development. Education is one of the most important distinctive features among the societies. A society is superior to others if it has a higher quality of education and a higher number of educated people and if its individuals have developed themselves and are well-equipped in many different areas. The USA, which is keeping its economy and technology at the highest level, has a high level of education, and in line with this, it provides a higher level of welfare compared to other societies. Distance education is now an indispensable part of education since with the help of technology; it enables individuals to get the education that they have not been able to achieve before. In Turkey, distance education was for the first time provided by the Open Education Faculty of Anadolu University through open education system. Then, the system of distance education started to be implemented in many universities and departments. An examination of the demographic characteristics of the individuals receiving distance education shows that they are mostly the individuals that have been restricted in terms of educational opportunities due to various reasons and that have not been able to get or access the education they desire. Distance education is therefore quite important. Today, distance education and learning is used very commonly in many countries of the world. Although there are many reasons for discussion, there are a high number of individuals that have overcome their educational deficiency by getting distance education. System of distance education and learning is now widely used in many areas and disciplines. There are a considerable number of people graduating from many different departments through distance education. Graduation from the department of business administration of the open education faculty helps individuals 2

13 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) working in enterprises in diverse areas, especially in the manufacturing sector, and the self-employed individuals in becoming more efficient and qualified managers. Many studies have been conducted and shed light on this topic. Besides, today s housewives and other individuals of the society who cannot access the education they desire due to various reasons develop themselves by benefiting from this opportunity, and most importantly, they achieve the education they long for. Education is the best indicator for the development level of the societies (Gültan, 2003: 47). A society s superiority in science and technology is only possible through education (Drucker, 1993: ). One of the most important advantages of today is that the individuals deprived of educational opportunities in their youth can fulfill their educational needs through distance education (Ertürk, 2006: 261). Humans have always invested in information. They have made many efforts to get information about the things they do not know (Kocacık, 2003: 9). Inability of the communities or the individuals in a country to access the education they desire is the worst possible aspect of the development level of that country. For education is the most natural right of the individuals (Kuzgun, 1997: 28). Development of technology has facilitated the individuals access to the desired education (Özkan, 2005). In the world of the 21st century, humans can fulfill their needs only through their knowledge (Sonyel, 2004: 400). The needs of a society can be met only by its knowledge. No integrity or unity can be expected from a society that cannot be understood. Therefore, an educated society is the best indicator of development (Yılman, 2006: ). Lifelong education and learning activities contribute a lot to the individuals personal and occupational development (Gordon, 2001: 11). The computer technology and the widespread Internet networks have facilitated the individuals access to educational opportunities (Giddens, 2008: 778). The system of distance education and learning differs from one person to another and from one reason to another. Nevertheless, the distance education provided to the individuals today makes a significant contribution to the individuals self-development (Gökdaş, 2005: 4). The system of distance education is not an alternative to the traditional system of education; it should be rather considered as a complementary educational technology (Uşun, 2006: 21). The success achieved by the traditional system of education cannot be compared with the level of success achieved through the system of distance education. But this cannot eliminate the fact that distance education develops individuals in many nontechnical areas (Mehratra, 2001: 11). Learning by living is one of the most natural rights. The system of distance education contributes to the individuals rapid and reliable access to 3

14 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) the education they desire (Sung, 2001: 3-6). With the help of the developed technology, the distance education approach is now used in master s and PhD courses and programs in many universities (Atasoy, 2008: 1-10). In Turkey, the first program for educating teachers through distance education was started in 1985, and 130,000 teachers participated in this program. As of 1990, 54,000 teachers had taken part in the bachelor s completion program and completed their education. The teachers who participated in these programs completed all their educational processes through radio and television and reinforced their own development (Uşun, 2006: 2-271). Hypotheses of the Study H0: There is no relation among the demographic variables. H0: The attended school is independent from the gender. H0: The high school of graduation is independent from the gender. H0: The attended school is independent from the family type. H0: The factors are independent from the attended school. H0: The factors are independent from the education level of the mother. H0: The factors are independent from the education level of the father. IMPLEMENTATION and ANALYSES Reliability Analysis Table 1. Reliability Statistics Cronbach s Alpha Number of items, Since Alpha was found to be in consequence of the reliability analysis, it can be suggested that the 21 factors have a very high level of reliability. ANALYSES DEMOGRAPHIC and DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Demographic and descriptive statistics of the study are provided in the following tables. H0: The high school of graduation is independent from the family type. H0: The factors are independent from the gender. 4

15 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) Table 2. Demographic Statistics Frequency Column N % Gender Female ,53% Male ,47% Age ,67% ,07% ,62% ,27% 65+ 3,38% Education General high school ,12% Anatolian high school 19 2,39% Vocational high school ,11% Imam hatip (religious) 13 1,63% high school Open education high 56 7,04% school 2-year associate ,55% degree 4-year bachelor s 50 6,28% degree Other 15 1,88% Marital status Married ,58% Single ,42% Children No children ,59% 1 child ,20% 2 children ,94% 3 children 27 3,39% 4 or more children 7,88% Region Black Sea 66 8,29% Central Anatolia ,23% Aegean Region 81 10,18% Mediterranean Region 66 8,29% Marmara ,33% Eastern Anatolia 32 4,02% Southeastern Anatolia 53 6,66% Place of Metropolis ,92% City ,28% Town 51 6,41% Village 16 2,01% residence District 19 2,39% Occupation Police officer 19 2,39% Public servant ,32% Teacher 19 2,39% Self-employed 60 7,54% Worker 85 10,68% Housewife 36 4,52% Member of the 25 3,14% military Student/Unemployed ,37% Retired 18 2,26% Craftsperson 8 1,01% Health worker 35 4,40% Technician 56 7,04% Bank officer 17 2,14% Other ,82% Income No income ,66% Minimum wage ,73% ,53% ,32% ,64% ,13% 5

16 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) FURTHER ANALYSES H0: There is no difference by gender in the factors. According to the analysis, Sig. value was determined to be below 0.05 for the items in which gender had an effect on the factors. According to this; Reason for choosing the program varies by gender. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by gender. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by gender. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by gender. Table 3. Gender Analyses - Independent Samples Test Levene s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Reason for choosing the program Does your current program make any contribution to getting a vocation? The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your social life (please choose only one option) The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your social life The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your family relationships Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 8,330,004 3, ,000, , ,344,000, ,117,000-4, ,000 -, , ,432,000 -,16441,000,997-1, ,179 -, , ,105,178 -, ,925,088 4, ,000, , ,398,000, ,045,025 -, ,858 -, , ,959,853 -,

17 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your family relationships The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to the self-development of the students as individuals? Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to raising awareness about women s rights? Do you think that 2 years of associate degree education is sufficient for this program? Do you find the branchspecific courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the basic courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the foreign language courses of the program sufficient? Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed,435,510 2, ,003, , ,920,004,51363,890,346, ,413,14334, ,405,409, ,639,010, ,381,16471, ,372,390, ,199,001 1, ,097, , ,658,107,05451,173,678 -, ,837 -, , ,640,837 -, ,367,000, ,518,03000, ,370,496, ,891,027-1, ,284 -, , ,475,277 -, ,392,238 -, ,559 -, , ,519,554 -, ,589,000 2, ,045, , ,887,050,

18 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) Do you have a computer? How many hours per day do you use computer for distance education? Do you have access to the Internet? How many hours per day do you access the Internet for the purpose of distance education? Which materials do you use the most in your current distance education program? Which Internet opportunities do you use the most in your current distance education program? Do you think that the content of this program is more suitable for female students? Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 2,589,108, ,419,01483, ,619,438, ,180,278 -, ,667 -, , ,965,670 -, ,111,024-1, ,266 -, , ,273,246 -,02611,078,780-1, ,150 -, , ,787,154 -,12519,438,508-1, ,131 -, , ,605,132 -, ,390,001 1, ,074, , ,923,084, ,429,064-1, ,261 -, , ,603,263 -,

19 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) H0: There is no difference by gender in the factors. According to the analysis, Sig. value was determined to be below 0.05 for the items in which age had an effect on the factors. According to this; Reason for choosing the program varies by age. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by age. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by age. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by age. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by age. Contribution of the courses to raising students awareness about women s rights varies by age. Sufficiency of 2 years of associate degree education varies by age. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by age. Sufficiency of the foreign language courses varies by age. Status of having access to the Internet varies by age. Connecting to the Internet for distance education varies by age. Use of the Internet for distance education varies by age. Suitability of the program s content for female students varies by age. 9

20 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) Reason for choosing the program Does your current program make any contribution to getting a vocation? The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your social life (please choose only one option) The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your social life The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your family relationships The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your family relationships The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to the selfdevelopment of the students as individuals? Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to raising awareness about women s rights? Do you think that 2 years of associate degree education is sufficient for this program? Do you find the branchspecific courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the basic courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the foreign language courses of the program sufficient? Table 4. Age Analyses - ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups Within Groups 26, , ,507 2,135 3,047,017 Total 1714, Between Groups Within Groups 18, , ,598,191 24,052,000 Total 169, Between Groups Within Groups 76, , ,134 5,357 3,572,007 Total 4313, Between Groups Within Groups 54, , ,702 5,924 2,313,056 Total 4740, Between Groups Within Groups 42, , ,705 3,554 3,012,018 Total 2854, Between Groups Within Groups 79, , ,996 5,191 3,852,004 Total 4186, Between Groups Within Groups 32, , ,172 5,237 1,561,183 Total 4174, Between Groups Within Groups 51, , ,859 6,023 2,135,075 Total 4815, Between Groups Within Groups, , ,102,186,546,702 Total 147, Between Groups Within Groups 3, , ,000,224 4,454,001 Total 181, Between Groups Within Groups 14, , ,696,353 10,456,000 Total 294, Between Groups Within Groups 5, , ,363,196 6,951,000 Total 160, Between Groups Within Groups 1, , ,313,141 2,220,065 Total 112, Between Groups Within Groups 5, , ,479,212 6,976,000 Total 173, Do you have a computer? Between Groups Within Groups,539 45, ,135,057 2,346,053 Total 45, How many hours per day do you use computer for distance education? Do you have access to the Internet? How many hours per day do you access the Internet for the purpose of distance education? Which materials do you use the most in your current distance education Between Groups Within Groups 11, , ,762 1,276 2,164,071 Total 1020, Between Groups Within Groups 2,848 72, ,712,091 7,792,000 Total 75, Between Groups Within Groups 13, , ,399 1,290 2,635,033 Total 1034, Between Groups Within Groups 17, , ,309 2,814 1,531,191 Total 2242, program? do you use the most in your current distance education Total 3985, Which Internet opportunities Between Groups Within Groups 149, , ,384 4,850 7,709,000 program? Do you think that the Between Groups 2,383 4,596 2,431,046 content of this program is more suitable for female students? Within Groups 193, ,245 Total 196,

21 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) H0: There is no difference by education in the factors. According to the analysis, Sig. value was determined to be below 0.05 for the items in which education has an effect for the factors. According to this; Reason for choosing the program varies by education. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by education. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by education. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by education. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by education. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by education. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by education. Contribution of the courses to the students development as individuals varies by education. Sufficiency of 2 years of associate degree education varies by education. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by education. Sufficiency of the basic courses varies by education. Sufficiency of the foreign language courses varies by education. Status of having a computer varies by education. Use of computers for distance education varies by education. Status of having access to the Internet varies by education. Connecting to the Internet for distance education varies by education. Use of materials for distance education varies by education. Use of the Internet for distance education varies by education. Suitability of the program s content for female students varies by education. Contribution of the courses to raising students awareness about women s rights varies by education. 11

22 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) Reason for choosing the program Does your current program make any contribution to getting a vocation? The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your social life (please choose only one option) The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your social life The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your family relationships The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your family relationships The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to the selfdevelopment of the students as individuals? Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to raising awareness about women s rights? Do you think that 2 years of associate degree education is sufficient for this program? Do you find the branchspecific courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the basic courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the foreign language courses of the program sufficient? Table 5. Education Analyses - ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups Within Groups 108, , ,528 2,038 7,617,000 Total 1714, Between Groups Within Groups 4, , ,594,210 2,830,006 Total 169, Between Groups Within Groups 24, , ,551 5,443,652,712 Total 4313, Between Groups Within Groups 122, , ,474 5,861 2,981,004 Total 4740, Between Groups Within Groups 58, , ,397 3,548 2,367,021 Total 2854, Between Groups Within Groups 78, , ,184 5,213 2,145,037 Total 4186, Between Groups Within Groups 103, , ,764 5,167 2,857,006 Total 4174, Between Groups Within Groups 145, , ,716 5,927 3,495,001 Total 4815, Between Groups Within Groups 3, , ,508,183 2,782,007 Total 147, Between Groups Within Groups 6, , ,976,222 4,404,000 Total 181, Between Groups Within Groups 8, , ,269,362 3,502,001 Total 294, Between Groups Within Groups 8, , ,178,193 6,095,000 Total 160, Between Groups Within Groups 2, , ,385,140 2,759,008 Total 112, Between Groups Within Groups 7, , ,057,211 5,012,000 Total 173, Do you have a computer? Between Groups Within Groups 2,660 43, ,380,055 6,911,000 Total 45, How many hours per day do you use computer for distance education? Do you have access to the Internet? How many hours per day do you access the Internet for the purpose of distance education? Which materials do you use the most in your current distance education Between Groups Within Groups 31, , ,565 1,255 3,638,001 Total 1020, Between Groups Within Groups 3,136 71, ,448,091 4,904,000 Total 75, Between Groups Within Groups 29, , ,238 1,275 3,325,002 Total 1034, Between Groups Within Groups 55, , ,944 2,776 2,862,006 Total 2242, program? do you use the most in your current distance education Total 3985, Which Internet opportunities Between Groups Within Groups 65, , ,363 4,975 1,882,070 program? Do you think that the Between Groups 9, ,305 5,495,000 content of this program is more suitable for female students? Within Groups 187, ,237 Total 196,

23 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) H0: There is no difference by place of residence in the factors. According to the analysis, Sig. value was determined to be below 0.05 for the items in which place of residence has an effect on the factors. According to this; Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by place of residence. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by place of residence. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by place of residence. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by place of residence. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by place of residence. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by place of residence. Sufficiency of the basic courses varies by place of residence. Status of having a computer varies by place of residence. Use of computers for distance education varies by place of residence. Status of having access to the Internet varies by place of residence. Connecting to the Internet for distance education varies by place of residence. Use of materials for distance education varies by place of residence. Suitability of the program s content for female students varies by place of residence. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by place of residence. 13

24 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) Reason for choosing the program Does your current program make any contribution to getting a vocation? The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your social life (please choose only one option) The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your social life The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your family relationships The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your family relationships The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to the selfdevelopment of the students as individuals? Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to raising awareness about women s rights? Do you think that 2 years of associate degree education is sufficient for this program? Do you find the branchspecific courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the basic courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the foreign language courses of the program sufficient? Table 6. Place of residence analyses ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups Within Groups 3, , ,760 2,164,351,843 Total 1714, Between Groups Within Groups 2, , ,581,211 2,746,027 Total 169, Between Groups Within Groups 79, , ,810 5,353 3,701,005 Total 4313, Between Groups Within Groups 82, , ,671 5,889 3,510,008 Total 4740, Between Groups Within Groups 99, , ,800 3,483 7,120,000 Total 2854, Between Groups Within Groups 103, , ,840 5,161 5,006,001 Total 4186, Between Groups Within Groups 168, , ,106 5,065 8,313,000 Total 4174, Between Groups Within Groups 35, , ,760 6,044 1,449,216 Total 4815, Between Groups Within Groups, , ,191,185 1,030,391 Total 147, Between Groups Within Groups, , ,088,229,384,820 Total 181, Between Groups Within Groups, , ,083,372,222,926 Total 294, Between Groups Within Groups 2, , ,672,200 3,368,010 Total 160, Between Groups Within Groups 1, , ,350,141 2,488,042 Total 112, Between Groups Within Groups 1, , ,483,217 2,224,065 Total 173, Do you have a computer? Between Groups Within Groups,636 45, ,159,057 2,774,026 Total 45, How many hours per day do you use computer for distance education? Do you have access to the Internet? How many hours per day do you access the Internet for the purpose of distance education? Which materials do you use the most in your current distance education Between Groups Within Groups 17, , ,291 1,269 3,382,009 Total 1020, Between Groups Within Groups 1,258 73, ,315,093 3,368,010 Total 75, Between Groups Within Groups 13, , ,382 1,290 2,621,034 Total 1034, Between Groups Within Groups 39, , ,864 2,786 3,541,007 Total 2242, program? do you use the most in your current distance education Total 3985, Which Internet opportunities Between Groups Within Groups 47, , ,863 4,979 2,383,050 program? Do you think that the Between Groups 3,617 4,904 3,713,005 content of this program is more suitable for female students? Within Groups 192, ,243 Total 196,

25 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) H0: There is difference by occupation in the factors. According to the analysis, Sig. value was determined to be below 0.05 for the items in which occupation has an effect on the factors. According to this; Reason for choosing the program varies by the variable of occupation. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by the variable of occupation. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by the variable of occupation. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by the variable of occupation. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by the variable of occupation. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by the variable of occupation. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by the variable of occupation. Contribution of the courses to the students development as individuals varies by the variable of occupation. Contribution of the courses to raising students awareness about women s rights varies by the variable of occupation. Sufficiency of 2 years of associate degree education varies by the variable of occupation. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by the variable of occupation. Sufficiency of the basic courses varies by the variable of occupation. Sufficiency of the foreign language courses varies by the variable of occupation. Status of having a computer varies by the variable of occupation. Use of computers for distance education varies by the variable of occupation. Status of having access to the Internet varies by the variable of occupation. Connecting to the Internet for distance education varies by the variable of occupation. Use of materials for distance education varies by the variable of occupation. Use of the Internet for distance education varies by the variable of occupation. Suitability of the program s content for female students varies by the variable of occupation. 15

26 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) Table 7. Occupation analyses - Test Statistics a,b Chi-square df Asymp. Sig. Reason for choosing the program Does your current program make any contribution 90,416 68, ,000,000 to getting a vocation? The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial 41,822 13,000 in your social life (please choose only one option) The second-grade courses that you find most 25,143 13,022 beneficial in your social life The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial 21,340 13,066 in your family relationships The second-grade courses that you find most 23,606 13,035 beneficial in your family relationships The first-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life 67,683 13,000 The second-grade courses that you find most beneficial in your working life Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to the self-development of the students as individuals? 47,944 13,000 31,039 13,003 Do you think that the courses in the program contribute to raising awareness about women s rights? 75,126 13,000 Do you think that 2 years of associate degree education is sufficient for this program? Do you find the branch-specific courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the basic courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the foreign language courses of the program sufficient? 72,497 13,000 63,949 13,000 49,398 13, ,261 13,000 Do you have a computer? 37,875 13,000 How many hours per day do you use computer for 29,899 13,005 distance education? Do you have access to the Internet? 26,508 13,015 How many hours per day do you access the Internet for the purpose of distance education? Which materials do you use the most in your current distance education program? 34,476 13,001 34,021 13,001 Which Internet opportunities do you use the most in your current distance education program? 52,809 13,000 Do you think that the content of this program is more suitable for female students? 29,922 13,005 a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Occupation 16

27 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) H0: There is no difference by income in the factors. According to the analysis, Sig. value was determined to be below 0.05 for the items in which income has an effect on the factors. According to this; Reason for choosing the program varies by the variable of income. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by the variable of income. Contribution of the courses to raising students awareness about women s rights varies by the variable of income. Sufficiency of 2 years of associate degree education varies by the variable of income. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by the variable of income. Sufficiency of the foreign language courses varies by the variable of income. Status of having a computer varies by the variable of income. Status of having access to the Internet varies by the variable of income. Use of the Internet for distance education varies by the variable of income. 17

28 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) Table 8. Income Analyses - Jonckheere-Terpstra Test a Number of Levels in Income N Observed J-T Statistic Mean J-T Statistic Std. Deviation of J-T Statistic Std. J-T Statistic Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Reason for choosing the , , ,131-4,256,000 program Does your current program , , ,336 7,819,000 make any contribution to getting a vocation? The first-grade courses that , , ,323-1,964,050 you find most beneficial in your social life (please choose only one option) The second-grade courses , , ,774 1,195,232 that you find most beneficial in your social life The first-grade courses that , , ,071 -,933,351 you find most beneficial in your family relationships The second-grade courses , , ,118 -,644,520 that you find most beneficial in your family relationships The first-grade courses that , , ,496 -,323,747 you find most beneficial in your working life The second-grade courses , , ,519 1,511,131 that you find most beneficial in your working life Do you think that the , , ,762 -,240,811 courses in the program contribute to the selfdevelopment of the students as individuals? Do you think that the , , ,980-4,430,000 courses in the program contribute to raising awareness about women s rights? Do you think that 2 years , , ,536-3,899,000 of associate degree education is sufficient for this program? Do you find the branchspecific , , ,161-2,866,004 courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the basic , , ,767-1,284,199 courses of the program sufficient? Do you find the foreign language courses of the , , ,809-3,742,000 program sufficient? Do you have a computer? , , ,436-3,953,000 How many hours per day , , ,608 -,144,885 do you use computer for distance education? Do you have access to the , , ,513-3,738,000 Internet? How many hours per day , , ,269 1,165,244 do you access the Internet for the purpose of distance education? Which materials do you , , ,813 1,214,225 use the most in your current distance education program? Which Internet opportunities , , ,193-6,482,000 do you use the most in your current distance education program? Do you think that the , , ,638,589,556 content of this program is more suitable for female students? a. Grouping Variable: Income 18

29 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) CONCLUSION and ASSESSMENT Reason for choosing the program varies by gender. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by gender. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by gender. The secondgrade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by gender. Reason for choosing the program varies by age. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by age. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by age. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by age. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by age. Contribution of the courses to raising students awareness about women s rights varies by age. Sufficiency of 2 years of associate degree education varies by age. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by age. Sufficiency of the foreign language courses varies by age. Status of having access to the Internet varies by age. Connecting to the Internet for distance education varies by age. Use of the Internet for distance education varies by age. Suitability of the program s content for female students varies by age. Reason for choosing the program varies by education. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by education. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by education. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by education. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by education. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by education. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by education. Contribution of the courses to the students development as individuals varies by education. Contribution of the courses to raising students awareness about women s rights varies by education. Sufficiency of 2 years of associate degree education varies by education. Sufficiency of the branchspecific courses varies by education. Sufficiency of the basic courses varies by education. Sufficiency of the foreign language courses varies by education. Status of having a computer varies by education. Use of computers for distance education varies by education. Status of having access to the Internet varies by education. Connecting to the Internet for distance education varies by education. Use of materials for distance education varies by education. Use of the Internet for distance education varies by education. Suitability of the program s content for female students varies by education. 19

30 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by place of residence. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by place of residence. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by place of residence. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by place of residence. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by place of residence. The first-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by place of residence. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by place of residence. Sufficiency of the basic courses varies by place of residence. Status of having a computer varies by place of residence. Use of computers for distance education varies by place of residence. Status of having access to the Internet varies by place of residence. Connecting to the Internet for distance education varies by place of residence. Use of materials for distance education varies by place of residence. Suitability of the program s content for female students varies by place of residence. Reason for choosing the program varies by the variable of occupation. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by the variable of occupation. The firstgrade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by the variable of occupation. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the social life vary by the variable of occupation. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the family relationships vary by the variable of occupation. The firstgrade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by the variable of occupation. The second-grade courses most beneficial in the working life vary by the variable of occupation. Contribution of the courses to the students development as individuals varies by the variable of occupation. Contribution of the courses to raising students awareness about women s rights varies by the variable of occupation. Sufficiency of 2 years of associate degree education varies by the variable of occupation. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by the variable of occupation. Sufficiency of the basic courses varies by the variable of occupation. Sufficiency of the foreign language courses varies by the variable of occupation. Status of having a computer varies by the variable of occupation. Use of computers for distance education varies by the variable of occupation. Status of having access to the Internet varies by the variable of occupation. Connecting to the Internet for distance education varies by the variable of occupation. Use of materials for distance education varies by the variable of occupation. Use of the Internet for distance education varies by the variable of occupa- 20

31 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) tion. Suitability of the program s content for female students varies by the variable of occupation. Reason for choosing the program varies by the variable of income. Contribution of the program to getting a vocation varies by the variable of income. Contribution of the courses to raising students awareness about women s rights varies by the variable of income. Sufficiency of 2 years of associate degree education varies by the variable of income. Sufficiency of the branch-specific courses varies by the variable of income. Sufficiency of the foreign language courses varies by the variable of income. Status of having a computer varies by the variable of income. Status of having access to the Internet varies by the variable of income. Use of the Internet for distance education varies by the variable of income. REFERENCES ATASOY, B.Ç., et all., (2008). İnternet Temelli Eğitim (Ed. H.İ. Yalın). Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara DRUCKER, P. F., (1993). Kapitalist Ötesi Toplum (Translated by B. Çorakçı). İnkılap Yayın Evi, İstanbul ERTÜRK, M., (2006). Yaşam Boyu Öğrenim İçin Uzaktan Öğretim Yöntemleri. 1. Uluslararası Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitim Teknolojileri Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı, Marmara University, İstanbul GIDDENS, A., (2008). Sosyoloji (Translated by H. Özel et all.). Kırmızı Yayınları, İstanbul GORDON, J., et al., (2001). Lifelong Learning: Which Ways Forward? (Ed. D. Colardyn). Brüksel: College of Europe GÖKTAŞ, İ., et all., (2005). E-Öğrenme Ve Türkiye Açısından Sorunlar, Çözüm Önerileri. Yüzüncü Yıl University Elektronik Eğitim Dergisi, 2(2). yyu.edu.tr/makaleler/cilt_ii/ig_mk.doc Accessed: GÜLTAN, S., (2003). Bilgi Toplumu Sürecinde Avrupa Topluluğu ve Türkiye, Avrupa Toplulukları Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, Ankara KOCACIK, F., (2003). Bilgi Toplumu ve Türkiye. Cumhuriyet University Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 27(1). (Accessed: ) KUZGUN, K., et all., (1997). Öğrencilerin Akademik Danışmanlarından Bekledikleri Görevler ve Danışmanların Görev Algıları. Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences Journal, 30(1),

32 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) ebfdergi/pdfler/ /27-43.pdf Accessed: MEHRATRA, C.M., et al., (2001). Distance Learning: Principles for Effective Design, Delivery, and Evaluation, Sage Publications, Londra ÖZKAN, R., (2005). Birey ve Toplum Gelişiminde Öğretmenlik Mesleğinin Önemi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, (166). yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/166/index3- ozkan.htm Accessed: SONYEL, B., (2004). The Relationship Between Teacher Education, Professionalism and Lifelong Learning. Fifth International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training. stamp.jsp?arnumber = &isnumber=29802 Accessed: SUNG, T. C., et al., (2001). Learning Through Collaborative Design: A Learning Strategy On The Internet. ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, 3. ieee.org/stamp/stamp. jsp?tp=&arnumber=963974&isnumb Accessed: UŞUN, S., (2006). Uzaktan Eğitim, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, İstanbul YILMAN, M., (2006). Türkiye de Öğretmen Eğitiminin Temelleri, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara Author s Note: This study was presented as a poster presentation in the 2nd International Congress on Different Dimensions of Violence and Social Perception, which was organized in Istanbul Pekom Congress Center on 3-4 September The article is the extended version of the poster presentation. 22

33 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) ANADOLU ÜNİVERSİTESİ AÇIKÖĞRETİM FAKÜLTESİ YÖNETİM VE ORGANİZASYON BÖLÜMÜ EV İDARESİ ÖN LİSANS PROGRAMI NDA OKUYAN ÖĞRENCİLERİN PROGRAMA İLİŞKİN GÖRÜŞLERİNİN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ Öz: Bu çalışma, uzaktan eğitim yöntemiyle eğitim verilen Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıköğretim Fakültesi Yönetim ve Organizasyon Bölümü Ev İdaresi Ön Lisans Programı nda okuyan öğrencilerin programa ilişkin görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Bu amaca yönelik olarak katılımcılara 33 sorudan oluşan bir anket uygulanmıştır. Çalışmada öncelikle kadına yönelik bir eğitim programı olarak Ev idaresi Ön Lisans Programı nın amacı, işlevi, dersler, öğrenci sayısı ile ilgili bilgiler verilmiştir. Daha sonra Dünyada ve Türkiye de uzaktan eğitimde kadın konusuna ve kadın ve erkeğin eğitimle ilgili istatistiki verilerine yer verilerek, uzaktan eğitimin kadınlar açısından olumlu ve olumsuz yönleri irdelenmiştir. Araştırmaya rasgele yöntemle seçilen 796 katılımcı iştirak etmiştir. Araştırmadan elde edilen veriler SPSS programında analiz edilerek değerlendirilmiştir. Elde edilen verilerin analizinde ise Independent Samples t-test, ANOVA, Kruskal Wallis test, Jonckheere-Terpstra Testi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonunda öğrencilerin demografik özelliklerinin (yaş, cinsiyet, gelir, meslek, yerleşim yeri vb.) programı tercih nedenleri, sosyal yaşamlarında, aile içi ilişkilerinde, iş yaşamlarında yararlandıkları dersler, ders programı hakkında düşünceleri, bilgisayar ve internet kullanımları, programın meslek edinmelerine, kendilerini birey olarak yetiştirmelerine ve kadın hakları konusunda bilinçlendirmeye yönelik olarak farklı oranlarda değişiklik gösterdiği saptanmıştır. Program tercih nedeni cinsiyete göre farklılık göstermektedir. Devam edilen programın meslek edinimine katkısı cinsiyete göre farklılık göstermektedir. Sosyal yaşamda en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri cinsiyete göre farklılık göstermektedir. Aile ilişkilerinde en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri cinsiyete göre farklılık göstermektedir. Program tercih nedeni yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Devam edilen programın meslek edinimine katkısı yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Sosyal yaşamda en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Aile ilişkilerinde en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri yaşa göre farklılık 23

34 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) göstermektedir. Aile ilişkilerinde en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Derslerin öğrencilerin kadın hakları konusunda bilinçlenmeye katkısı yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. 2 yıllık ön lisansın yeterliliği yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Branş derslerinin yeterliliği yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Yabancı dil derslerinin yeterliliği yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. İnternet erişimine sahiplik yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Uzaktan eğitim için internete bağlanma yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Uzaktan eğitim için internetten yararlanma yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Programın kadın öğrencilere yönelik içeriği yaşa göre farklılık göstermektedir. Program tercih nedeni eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Devam edilen programın meslek edinimine katkısı eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Sosyal yaşamda en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Aile ilişkilerinde en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Aile ilişkilerinde en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. İş yaşamında en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. İş yaşamında en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Derslerin öğrencilerin birey olarak yetişmelerindeki katkısı eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Derslerin öğrencilerin kadın hakları konusunda bilinçlenmeye katkısı eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. 2 yıllık ön lisansın yeterliliği eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Branş derslerinin yeterliliği eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Temel derslerin yeterliliği eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Yabancı dil derslerinin yeterliliği eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Bilgisayar sahipliği eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Uzaktan eğitim için bilgisayar kullanımı eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. İnternet erişimine sahiplik eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Uzaktan eğitim için internete bağlanma eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Uzaktan eğitim için materyallerden yararlanma eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Uzaktan eğitim için internetten yararlanma eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir. Programın kadın öğrencilere yönelik içeriği eğitime göre farklılık göstermektedir.devam edilen programın meslek edinimine katkısı yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Sosyal yaşamda en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Sosyal yaşamda en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Aile ilişkilerinde en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Aile ilişkilerinde en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. İş yaşamında en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Branş derslerinin yeterliliği yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Temel derslerin yeterliliği yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Bilgisayar sahipliği yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Uzaktan 24

35 ID: 463 K:12 JEL CODE: M5-M10-M19-Z19 (Management and Organization) eğitim için bilgisayar kullanımı yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. İnternet erişimine sahiplik yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Uzaktan eğitim için internete bağlanma yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Uzaktan eğitim için materyallerden yararlanma yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Programın kadın öğrencilere yönelik içeriği yerleşim yerine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Program tercih nedeni meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Devam edilen programın meslek edinimine katkısı meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Sosyal yaşamda en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Sosyal yaşamda en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Aile ilişkilerinde en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. İş yaşamında en çok yararlanılan birinci sınıf dersleri meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. İş yaşamında en çok yararlanılan ikinci sınıf dersleri meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Derslerin öğrencilerin birey olarak yetişmelerindeki katkısı meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Derslerin öğrencilerin kadın hakları konusunda bilinçlenmeye katkısı meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. 2 yıllık ön lisansın yeterliliği meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Branş derslerinin yeterliliği meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Temel derslerin yeterliliği meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Yabancı dil derslerinin yeterliliği meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Bilgisayar sahipliği meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Uzaktan eğitim için bilgisayar kullanımı meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. İnternet erişimine sahiplik meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Uzaktan eğitim için internete bağlanma meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Uzaktan eğitim için materyallerden yararlanma meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Uzaktan eğitim için internetten yararlanma meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Programın kadın öğrencilere yönelik içeriği meslek değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Program tercih nedeni gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Devam edilen programın meslek edinimine katkısı gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Derslerin öğrencilerin kadın hakları konusunda bilinçlenmeye katkısı gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. 2 yıllık ön lisansın yeterliliği gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Branş derslerinin yeterliliği gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Yabancı dil derslerinin yeterliliği gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Bilgisayar sahipliği gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. İnternet erişimine sahiplik gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Uzaktan eğitim için internetten yararlanma gelir değişkenine göre farklılaşmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Eğitim, Yönetim. Ev İdaresi, Cinsiyet, İnternet, Program, Değişken 25

36 INTERNATIONAL REFEREED ACADEMIC SOCIAL SCIENCES JOURNAL COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIABLES CAUSING HAPPINESS IN TURKISH YOUTH EMPLOYMENT 1 Murat KORKMAZ 1, Ali Serdar YÜCEL 2, Ercan ŞAHBUDAK 3, Hatice Nur GERMİR 4, Erdal ŞEN 5, Nurullah KARTA 6 1 Güven Group Inc. Finance Manager, Istanbul / Turkey 2 Fırat University Faculty of Sports Sciences, Elazığ / Turkey 3 Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Education, Department of Sociology, Sivas / Turkey 4 Celal Bayar University School of Applied Sciences, Manisa / Turkey 5 Istanbul Gelişim University, Faculty of Businees Administration and Social Sciences Business Administration (English) Department, Istanbul / Turkey 6 Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Education, Primary Department, Van / Turkey Abstract: In this study, it was aimed to examine practically the relationship of variables with each other which cause personal happiness by using data of Turkish Statistical Institute (TSI). Data acquired from this study was analyzed with E-Views 8.0 program. As a result of regression and correlation analyses, factors affecting workforce at the most were determined. At the end of the study, it was tried to determine positive and negative relationships among hope rate, happiness rate, love, success, business, trip, entertainment, sports and cultural activities, relative and friend visits and business trips (conference, meeting, duty, etc.) which cause happiness in youth employment. Key Words: Employment, Happiness, Variable, Young, TSI, Relationship Doi: /IIB (1) Corresponding Author: Ali Serdar YÜCEL, Fırat University, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Elazığ / Turkey alsetu_23@hotmail.com Arrival Date Date of Admission: Article Type: (Research and Practice) Conflict of Interest No Ethics Committee No 26

37 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) INTRODUCTION Youth which is seen as the summer of life and in which an individual experiences intensive changes biologically, physiologically and psychologically has a significant place in lifetime. Indeed, the most important and effective period of lifetime is youth. Youth is the period when human body is in its most energetic, active and idealist, therefore the most fruitful form. A society that gives importance to its youth, equips it with all kind of knowledge, skill and ability will have a bright future, as well (Cirit, 2008). Especially enabling employment of the youth possesses social and individual importance. Although loss of income which is the economic effect of unemployment on an individual can be compensated to some extent with ways such as unemployment insurance and helping each other within the family, it is stated that social effects of unemployment such as hopelessness, fear, lack of confidence and poverty are permanent (Ataman, 2000). From this point of view, it should be emphasized that social outcomes of youth unemployment are much more important than its economic outcomes. Youth unemployment should be accepted as a problem which affects lives of youth and future of countries negatively, whose damages cannot be compensated and therefore which is compulsory to solve (Erdayı, 2009). need (Lukowsk, 2004). Unemployment bears economic outcomes in terms of an individual and society and it also has some physiological and social effects on those who are unemployed and on their families (Güney, 2009). Studies show that there is a relationship between unemployment and social disorders such as divorces, use of alcohol and drugs, committing crime and suicides as well as experiencing health problems (Güney, 2009). For example, a study indicates that increase of unemployment for any reason increases crime rate, as well (Cömertler, 2007). The youth brings energy, skill and efficiency to economies and lays the foundation of future development (ILO, 2008:2). Employment of the youth who possesses the necessary knowledge, ability and skill with convenient job opportunities can enable them to be more hopeful and happy individuals in the future. Happiness level of a person can be qualified as how much that person evaluates his/her total life quality as positive in general (Bülbül and Giray, 2011). In this situation, life standards of an employed young person will change and he/ she will be happier by evaluating his/her total life quality as more positive. Employment is a determinant force shaping personality of an individual as well as being a social 27

38 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) Aim, Scope, Method This study aims at examining practically the relationship of variables with each other which cause personal happiness by using TSI data. Variables were determined for the period between 2007 and Data Analysis Data acquired from this study was analyzed with E-Views 8.0 program. As a result of regression and correlation analyses, factors affecting workforce at the most were determined. Hypotheses of the Study H0: There isn t any relationship among variables. H0: There isn t any relationship between happiness level among adults and other variables. H0: There isn t any relationship between hope level among adults and other variables. H0: There isn t any relationship between love and other variables. H0: There isn t any relationship between success and other variables. H0: There isn t any relationship between work level and other variables. H0: There isn t any relationship between entertainment trip level and other variables. H0: There isn t any relationship between relative visit level and other variables. IMPLEMENTATION and ANALYSES Summaries of Variables HAPP: Happiness rate among adults HOPE: Hope rate among adults LOVE: Love as the source of happiness SUCC: Success as the source of happiness JOB: Job as the source of happiness ENT: Trip, entertainment, sports and cultural activities REL: Relative and friend visit BUSS: Business (conference, meeting, duty, etc.) CORRELATION ANALYSIS H0: There isn t any relationship among variables. Results regarding the conducted correlation analysis are shown below. There is a positive high relationship between happiness level and hope level, a high relationship between happiness level and love, a high relationship between happiness level and success, a medium relationship between happiness level and job, a medium relationship between happiness level and entertainment trips, a negative medium relationship between 28

39 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) happiness level and relative visits, a negative medium level relationship between happiness level and business trips. There is a high relationship between hope level and love, a high relationship between hope level and success, a low relationship between hope level and job, a medium relationship between hope level and entertainment trips, a medium relationship between hope level and relative visits, a medium level relationship between hope level and business trips. There is a high relationship between love and success, a low relationship between love and job, a medium relationship between love and entertainment trips, a medium relationship between love and relative visits, a high level relationship between love and business trips. There is a high relationship between success and job, a high relationship between success and entertainment trips, a high relationship between success and relative visits, a high level relationship between success and business trips. There is a medium relationship between business trips and entertainment trips, a medium relationship between business trips and relative visits, a high level relationship among business trips. There is a high relationship between entertainment trips and relative visits, a high level relationship between entertainment trips and business trips. There is a high level relationship between relative visits and business trips. Table 1. Pearson Correlation HAPP HOPE LOVE SUCC JOB ENT REL BUSS HAPP - HOPE 0,827 - LOVE 0,743 0,732 - SUCC 0,829 0,633 0,905 - JOB 0,388 0,158 0,744 0,735 - ENT 0,502 0,496 0,690 0,784 0,587 - REL -0,505 0,499 0,693 0,786 0,589 0,912 - BUSS -0,614 0,596 0,780 0,839 0,649 0,981 0,982-29

40 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) REGRESSION ANALYSIS H0: There isn t any relationship between happiness level among adults and other variables. When the regression analysis in which happiness level among adults and other variables were examined all together was observed, the following results were acquired: When hope level increases one unit, happiness level increases 0,62 units. When love level increases one unit, happiness level increases 0,63 units. When success level increases one unit, happiness level increases 1,33 units. When work level increases one unit, happiness level increases 0,24 units. When entertainment trip level increases one unit, happiness level increases 16 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, happiness level increases 2,43 units. When business trip level increases one unit, happiness level increases 0,16 units. 30

41 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) Table 2. Happiness Regression Dependent Variable: HAPP Method: Least Squares Date: 06/14/15 Time: 01:02 Sample: Included observations: 7 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-statistic Prob. HOPE LOVE SUCC JOB ENT REL BUSS R-squared Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Akaike info criterion Sum squared resid 3.86E-19 Schwarz criterion Log likelihood Hannan-Quinn criter Durbin-Watson stat H0: There isn t any relationship between hope level among adults and other variables. When the regression analysis in which hope level among adults and other variables were examined all together was observed, the following results were acquired: When love level increases one unit, hope level increases 0,43 units. When success level increases one unit, hope level increases 0,14 units. When work level increases one unit, hope level increases 0,98 units. When entertainment trip level increases one unit, hope level increases 16 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, hope level increases 2,76 units. 31

42 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) When business level increases one unit, hope level increases 0,31 units. Table 3. Hope Regression Dependent Variable: HOPE Method: Least Squares Date: 06/14/15 Time: 01:03 Sample: Included observations: 7 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-statistic Prob. LOVE SUCC JOB ENT REL BUSS R-squared Mean dependent var Adjusted R-squared S.D. dependent var S.E. of regression Akaike info criterion Sum squared resid Schwarz criterion Log likelihood Hannan-Quinn criter Durbin-Watson stat H0: There isn t any relationship between love and other variables. When the regression analysis in which love and other variables were examined all together was observed, the following results were acquired: When success level increases one unit, love level increases 0,71 units. When work level increases one unit, love level increases 0,17 units. When entertainment trip level increases one unit, love level increases 5,74 units. 32

43 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) When relative visit level increases one unit, love level increases 1,05 units. When business trip level increases one unit, love level increases 0,26 units. Table 4. Love Regression Dependent Variable: LOVE Method: Least Squares Date: 06/14/15 Time: 01:05 Sample: Included observations: 7 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-statistic Prob. SUCC JOB ENT REL BUSS R-squared Mean dependent var Adjusted R-squared S.D. dependent var S.E. of regression Akaike info criterion Sum squared resid Schwarz criterion Log likelihood Hannan-Quinn criter Durbin-Watson stat H0: There isn t any relationship between success and other variables. When the regression analysis in which success and other variables were examined all together was observed, the following results were acquired: When work level increases one unit, success level increases 0,41 units. When entertainment trip level increases one unit, success level increases 3,19 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, success level increases 0,57 units. When business trip level increases one unit, success level increases 0,19 units. 33

44 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) Table 5. Success Regression Dependent Variable: SUCC Method: Least Squares Date: 06/14/15 Time: 01:05 Sample: Included observations: 7 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-statistic Prob. JOB ENT REL BUSS R-squared Mean dependent var Adjusted R-squared S.D. dependent var S.E. of regression Akaike info criterion Sum squared resid Schwarz criterion Log likelihood Hannan-Quinn criter Durbin-Watson stat H0: There isn t any relationship between work level and other variables. When the regression analysis in which work level and other variables were examined all together was observed, the following results were acquired: When entertainment trip level increases one unit, work level increases 1,63 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, work level increases 0,36 units. When business trip level increases one unit, work level increases 0,18 units. 34

45 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) Table 6. Work Regression Dependent Variable: JOB Method: Least Squares Date: 06/14/15 Time: 01:06 Sample: Included observations: 7 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-statistic Prob. ENT REL BUSS R-squared Mean dependent var Adjusted R-squared S.D. dependent var S.E. of regression Akaike info criterion Sum squared resid Schwarz criterion Log likelihood Hannan-Quinn criter Durbin-Watson stat H0: There isn t any relationship between entertainment trip level and other variables. When the regression analysis in which entertainment trip level and other variables were examined all together was observed, the following results were acquired: When relative visit level increases one unit, entertainment trip level increases 1,92 units. When business trip level increases one unit, entertainment trip level increases 0,05 units. 35

46 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) Table 7. Entertainment Regression Dependent Variable: ENT Method: Least Squares Date: 06/14/15 Time: 01:06 Sample: Included observations: 7 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-statistic Prob. REL BUSS R-squared Mean dependent var Adjusted R-squared S.D. dependent var S.E. of regression Akaike info criterion Sum squared resid Schwarz criterion Log likelihood Hannan-Quinn criter Durbin-Watson stat H0: There isn t any relationship between relative visit level and other variables. When the regression analysis in which relative visit level and other variables were examined all together was observed, the following results were acquired: When business trip level increases one unit, relative visit level increases 1,23 units. 36

47 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) Table 8. Relative Visit Regression Dependent Variable: REL Method: Least Squares Date: 06/14/15 Time: 01:06 Sample: Included observations: 7 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-statistic Prob. BUSS R-squared Mean dependent var Adjusted R-squared S.D. dependent var S.E. of regression Akaike info criterion Sum squared resid Schwarz criterion Log likelihood Hannan-Quinn criter Durbin-Watson stat CONCLUSION and ASSESSMENT There is a positive high relationship between happiness level and hope level, a high relationship between happiness level and love, a high relationship between happiness level and success, a medium relationship between happiness level and job, a medium relationship between happiness level and entertainment trips, a negative medium relationship between happiness level and relative visits, a negative medium level relationship between happiness level and business trips. There is a high relationship between hope level and love, a high relationship between hope level and success, a low relationship between hope level and job, a medium relationship between hope level and entertainment trips, a medium relationship between hope level and relative visits, a medium level relationship between hope level and business trips. There is a high relationship between love and success, a low relationship between love and job, a medium relationship between love and entertainment trips, a medium relationship between love and relative visits, a high level relationship between love and business trips. There is a high relationship between success and job, a high relationship between success and entertain- 37

48 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) ment trips, a high relationship between success and relative visits, a high level relationship between success and business trips. There is a medium relationship between business trips and entertainment trips, a medium relationship between business trips and relative visits, a high level relationship among business trips. There is a high relationship between entertainment trips and relative visits, a high level relationship between entertainment trips and business trips. There is a high level relationship between relative visits and business trips. When hope level increases one unit, happiness level increases 0,62 units. When love level increases one unit, happiness level increases 0,63 units. When success level increases one unit, happiness level increases 1,33 units. When work level increases one unit, happiness level increases 0,24 units. When entertainment trip level increases one unit, happiness level increases 16 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, happiness level increases 2,43 units. When business trip level increases one unit, happiness level increases 0,16 units. When success level increases one unit, love level increases 0,71 units. When work level increases one unit, love level increases 0,17 units. When entertainment trip level increases one unit, love level increases 5,74 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, love level increases 1,05 units. When business trip level increases one unit, love level increases 0,26 units. When work level increases one unit, success level increases 0,41 units. When entertainment trip level increases one unit, success level increases 3,19 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, success level increases 0,57 units. When business trip level increases one unit, success level increases 0,19 units. When entertainment trip level increases one unit, work level increases 1,63 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, work level increases 0,36 units. When business trip level increases one unit, work level increases 0,18 units. When relative visit level increases one unit, entertainment trip level increases 1,92 units. When business trip level increases one unit, entertainment trip level increases 0,05 units. When business trip level increases one unit, relative visit level increases 1,23 units. REFERENCES ATAMAN, C., (2000). İşgücü Piyasası ve İstihdam Politikalarının Temel Prensipleri, A.U. Faculty of Political Sciences Publications, Ankara, p. 1 BÜLBÜL, Ş., GİRAY, S., (2011). Sosyodemografik Özellikler ile Mutluluk Algısı Arasındaki İlişki Yapısının Analizi, Ege Akademik Bakış, 11, Special edition,

49 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) CİRİT, B.H., (2008). Hz. Peygamber ve Gençlik, Bakü State University Faculty of Divine İlmi Mecmuası, 09 April 2008, p CÖMERTLER, N., (2007). Türkiye de Suç Oranının Sosyo-Ekonomik Belirleyicileri, Ankara University SBF Dergisi, Vol:62 No:2 April-June, Ankara ERDAYI, A.U., (2009). Dünyada Genç İşsizliği Sorununun Çözümüne Yönelik Ulusal Politikalar ve Türkiye, Çalışma ve Toplum, 3: 135, 136 GÜNEY, A., (2009). İşsizlik, Nedenleri, Sonuçları ve mücadele yöntemleri, Kamu-İş; V:10, p.4 ILO (2008). Global Employment Trends For Youth 2008, Geneva: ILO Pub LUKOWSK, A.V., (2004). The Relationship between Employer- Employee Congruence of Values, Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction, University of Northern Colorada, Thesis, p. 45 Author s Note: This study was presented as a poster presentation in the 2nd International Congress on Different Dimensions of Violence and Social Perception, which was organized in Istanbul Pekom Congress Center on 3-4 September The article is the extended version of the poster presentation. 39

50 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) TÜRK GENÇ İSTİHDAMINDA MUTLUĞA NEDEN OLUŞTURAN DEĞİŞKENLERİN KARŞILAŞTIRMALI ANALİZİ Öz: Çalışmada yılları arasındaki TUIK verileri baz alınarak kişisel mutluluğa temel olan değişkenlerin birbirleri arasındaki ilişkinin uygulamalı olarak incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu araştırmadan elde edilen veriler E-Views 8.0 programı ile analiz edilmiştir. Yapılan regresyon ve korelasyon analizleri sonucunda işgücünü en çok etkileyen faktörler belirlenmiştir. Çalışma sonunda genç istihdamında mutluluğa neden olan umut oranı, mutluluk oranı, sevgi, başarı, iş, Gezi, eğlence, sportif ve kültürel faaliyetler, Akraba ve arkadaş ziyareti ve İş amaçlı (konferans, toplantı, görev vb.) geziler arasındaki olumlu ve olumsuz ilişkiler ortaya koyulmaya çalışılmıştır. Mutluluk düzeyi ile umut düzeyi arasında pozitif yüksek, sevgi arasında yüksek, başarı arasında yüksek, iş arasında orta, eğlence amaçlı geziler arasında orta, akraba ziyareti amaçlı geziler arasında negatif orta, iş amaçlı geziler arasında negatif orta düzeyli ilişki bulunmaktadır. Umut düzeyi ile sevgi arasında yüksek, başarı arasında yüksek, iş arasında düşük, eğlence amaçlı geziler arasında orta, akraba ziyareti amaçlı geziler arasında orta, iş amaçlı geziler arasında orta düzeyli ilişki bulunmaktadır. Sevgi ile başarı arasında yüksek, iş arasında düşük, eğlence amaçlı geziler arasında orta, akraba ziyareti amaçlı geziler arasında orta, iş amaçlı geziler arasında yüksek düzeyli ilişki bulunmaktadır. Başarı ile iş arasında yüksek, eğlence amaçlı geziler arasında yüksek, akraba ziyareti amaçlı geziler arasında yüksek, iş amaçlı geziler arasında yüksek düzeyli ilişki bulunmaktadır. İş amaçlı geziler ile eğlence amaçlı geziler arasında orta, akraba ziyareti amaçlı geziler arasında orta, iş amaçlı geziler arasında yüksek düzeyli ilişki bulunmaktadır. Eğlence amaçlı geziler ile akraba ziyareti amaçlı geziler arasında yüksek, iş amaçlı geziler arasında yüksek düzeyli ilişki bulunmaktadır. Akraba ziyareti amaçlı geziler ile iş amaçlı geziler arasında yüksek düzeyli ilişki bulunmaktadır. Umut düzeyi bir birim arttığında, mutluluk düzeyi 0,62 birim artmaktadır. Sevgi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, mutluluk düzeyi 0,63 birim artmaktadır. Başarı düzeyi bir birim arttığında, mutluluk düzeyi 1,33 birim artmaktadır. İş düzeyi bir birim arttığında, mutluluk düzeyi 0,24 birim artmaktadır. Eğlence amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, mutluluk düzeyi 16 birim artmaktadır. Akraba ziyareti amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, 40

51 ID: 464 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12 (Labor Economics and Employment) mutluluk düzeyi 2,43 birim artmaktadır. İş amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, mutluluk düzeyi 0,16 birim artmaktadır. Başarı düzeyi bir birim arttığında, sevgi düzeyi 0,71 birim artmaktadır. İş düzeyi bir birim arttığında, sevgi düzeyi 0,17 birim artmaktadır. Eğlence amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, sevgi düzeyi 5,74 birim artmaktadır. Akraba ziyareti amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, sevgi düzeyi 1,05 birim artmaktadır. İş amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, sevgi düzeyi 0,26 birim artmaktadır. İş düzeyi bir birim arttığında, başarı düzeyi 0,41 birim artmaktadır. Eğlence amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, başarı düzeyi 3,19 birim artmaktadır. Akraba ziyareti amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, başarı düzeyi 0,57 birim artmaktadır. İş amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, başarı düzeyi 0,19 birim artmaktadır. İş amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, iş düzeyi 1,63 birim artmaktadır. Akraba ziyareti amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, iş düzeyi 0,36 birim artmaktadır. İş amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, iş düzeyi 0,18 birim artmaktadır. Akraba ziyareti amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, Eğlence amaçlı gezi düzeyi 1,92 birim artmaktadır. İş amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, Eğlence amaçlı gezi düzeyi 0,05 birim artmaktadır. İş amaçlı gezi düzeyi bir birim arttığında, Akraba ziyareti amaçlı gezi düzeyi 1,23 birim artmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: İstihdam, Mutluluk, Değişken, Genç, TUİK, İlişki 41

52 INTERNATIONAL REFEREED ACADEMIC SOCIAL SCIENCES JOURNAL A STUDY ON DEVELOPING A SCALE DIRECTED TO THE PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL PERCEPTIONS OF EMPLOYEES 1 Ercan ŞAHBUDAK 1, Murat KORKMAZ 2, Muhammet BEKÇİ 3, Meral ÖZTÜRK 4, Dilek ŞAHİN 5, Erdal ŞEN 6, Nurullah KARTA 7 1 Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Education, Department of Sociology, Sivas / Turkey 2 Güven Group Co. Inc. Finance Director, Istanbul / Turkey 3 Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Education, Department of Statistics, Sivas / Turkey 4 Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Education, Department of Social Service, Sivas / Turkey 5 Cumhuriyet University, Tourism and Hotel Management, Hospitality Management Department, Sivas / Turkey 6 Istanbul Gelişim University, Faculty of Businees Administration and Social Sciences Business Administration (English) Department, Istanbul / Turkey 7 Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Education, Primary Department, Van / Turkey Abstract: A two-part questionnaire with a 5-point Likert-type scale, verified for validity and reliability, was used in this practical study, which included a total of 597 persons from different sectors. The study was completed in around 5 months. All the participants included in the study were selected through simple random sampling method. All the participants expressed their choices on the questionnaire forms in accordance with their own free thoughts and ideas. The questionnaire forms were sent to the participants by hand, mail or . Questionnaire forms were submitted to a total of 2500 participants, and only 872 of them responded. 597 of the received questionnaire forms were found suitable for the research. According to the information obtained, Cronbach s Alpha Coefficient was calculated to be by the SPSS Statistics 18 software. This value shows that the questionnaire used in the study is highly reliable. The study was extended through correlation, regression and factor analyses, and the study was examined under 7 sub-factors. According to the analyses and the findings of the study, it was determined that the influence of leadership was important for employees and it created difference in terms of mental activity. It was also concluded that the concept of leadership affected especially the motivation and performance of the employees. Key Words: Leader, Employee, Job, Attitude, Factor, Performance, Motivation Doi: /IIB (1) Corresponding Author: Ercan ŞAHBUDAK, Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of Education, Department of Sociology, Sivas / Turkey sahbudakercan@gmail.com Arrival Date Date of Admission: Article Type: (Research and Practice) Conflict of Interest No Ethics Committee No 42

53 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW One of the most important problems in today s working life is the employees attitude towards and perceived problems about their jobs. This situation reveals the dimension of the relation between the employee and the job in different aspects. However, what the employers usually want is the performance and productivity of the employees as well as their loyalty. Historically, much research has been conducted on employees attitude and social perception about their jobs. Especially in institutional businesses, studies about organizational structure are more prevalent. Organizational culture and organizational behavior are important in increasing the labor productivity and the level of performance (Kendirligil, 2006: 13, and Güçlü, 2006: 148). Professional success can be achieved only through creating an efficient level of perception in individuals and communities (Dinçer, 1997: ). In today s businesses, especially institutional responsibility and social cohesion are important concepts (Tatari, 2003: 2). Professional superiority ensures both competitive advantage and higher profitability, contributing to the success of businesses (Kotler, 2006: 2-3). Professional superiority is measured by individuals behaviors and attitude towards their jobs (Dinçer, 1998: 155). A business of institution can achieve competitive advantage only through being different (Barutçugil, 2004: 222). Businesses which aim to achieve economic success and high profitability must teach their employees different professional qualities (Schwartz et al., 2003: 504). Job burnout has been one of the most salient issues among employees in recent years (Dağcı et al., 2014: ). Production businesses can acquire competitive advantage only by conforming to the changing conditions of the world, efficiently using the technology and teaching their employees different professional qualities (Korkmaz et al., 2012: 1-16). In the health sector, which has a very high risk factor, the professional competency of the health workers cause the quality of work and personal characteristics to be more efficient (Özdil et al., 2012: 1-16). In periods of crisis, superiority can be achieved only through turning the declining advantages into profitability. And this is possible through highly talented employees (Işık et al., 2012: 1-22). In the sector of tourism and hotel management, advantage can be achieved only through the service delivery of the staff. This paves the way for the business to achieve higher profitability as well as competitive advantage (Günden et al., 2012: 1-26). Time management is quite important in professional superiority and performance management. This enables the business to turn the risks into an advantage and profitability (Korkmaz et al., 2012: 1-18). Professional satisfaction affects 43

54 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) the employee s level of perception (Tutar, 2011: 13). The only way to ensure a high amount of production and more profitability is though employees commitment to their jobs. Efficient planning and more productive use of the time have an effect on the level of productivity of the business (Westbrook, 1993: 2-3). Professional competence affects the factor of saving because the employees levels of professional competence are the aspect that the human resources most intensely work on during the time and quality planning (Terzioğlu, 2003: 9). The concept of leadership is also quite important in professional success. Employees adaptation and conditioning to the work are ensured through an efficient model of leadership (Akat, 1998: 7). Managers with high leadership capacity and with an influence on employees have very high importance for businesses (Blake et al., 1985: 7). Transformational leaders have higher efficiency in adapting employees to the goals and the structure and in managing the operational factors (Bass et al., 1995: 3). An efficient leader leads employees to assume efficient roles in the decision making mechanism and to have greater sense of responsibility (Bennis et al., 1985: 11). Purpose, Scope, Method This research includes a practical examination of employees attitude towards and perception about their jobs and occupations. 597 employees took part in this practical study. A two-part questionnaire with a 5-point Likerttype scale was applied to the participants. Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire Since the questionnaire, which was the measuring tool in this research, would be used for the first time, a preliminary test was conducted to ensure its validity and reliability before the main research. A total of 125 participants were included in the preliminary test. The data acquired in the first preliminary test were analyzed through the SPSS 18 statistical software, and the Cronbach s Alpha Coefficient was found to be The first test included 56 questions with a 5-point Likert scale and 19 questions with demographic options. 16 questions that decreased the reliability value were excluded, and a new questionnaire form with 44 questionnaires was arranged for the main research. In accordance with the data acquired from the preliminary test and with the data analysis, 7 sub-dimensions were determined and the 44 questions were grouped. After the grouping, the form was rearranged, and then the main research started. The first research PRELIMINARY TEST was applied to the managing and managed employees working in 26 production enterprises in Istanbul and Izmit. Among the 125 participants, 8 were white-collar managers. 29 of them were in the positions of middle-class 44

55 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) managing Chief. Rest of the participants were normal Managed working individuals. As for the educational status of the participants in the preliminary test research, 3 of them held PhD degree, 17 master s degree, 21 bachelor s degree, 32 vocational school degree, and the rest had received high school or lower education. Regarding the gender distribution, 2 in the white-collar Senior Management were female while 6 were male. Of the middle-class Chiefs, 9 were female and 20 were male. Of the lower-class managed employees, 62 were male and 26 were female. The average age of 125 participants was The oldest participants was 52 and the youngest participant was 19. As for the wages, the participant with the highest net salary earned 3950 TRY while the lowest net salary was 1050 TRY. The average income of the all participants was 2500 TRY. As for the marital status, 72% was married. The average number of children of the married participants was 2. For the durations of marriage, the highest was 28 years and the lowest was 1 year. The average was 14.5 years. All the participants were registered in the social insurance institution (SSK insurance). The white collars had both SSK insurance and private health insurance. Special cars were allocated for the white collars and the middle class managers by their enterprise. For the periods of working in these enterprises, the highest was 15 years and the lowest was 1 year. For the working experience, the highest was 23 years and the lowest was 1 year. The longest period of experience in management was 14 years while the lowest was 2 years. All the employees working in the management were provided with private cars they could use personally by their enterprises. This study was a scale development study. 1 occupational safety specialist, 1 psychologist, 4 sociologists, 1 economist and statistics expert and 1 educational advisor, all of whom were specialized in their fields, took part in the whole research process including pre- and post-implementation stages. The preliminary test took 78 days. Data Analysis Simple random sampling method was employed in the study. The data obtained from the study were analyzed through the SPSS statistics 18 software. Cronbach s Alpha Coefficient was found to be in consequence of the correlation and regression analyses. In the end of the study, the problems faced by the employees and the leadership values were questioned. Research Hypotheses H1: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Intellectual Stimulation. 45

56 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) H2: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Charisma/Inspiration. H3: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Idealized Influence. H4: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Individualized Consideration. H5: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Continuance Commitment. IMPLEMENTATION AND ANALYSES Reliability Analysis Table 1. Reliability Statistics Cronbach s Alpha Number of Items, Since Cronbach s Alpha Coefficient was found to be in consequence of the reliability analysis, it can be suggested that the 44 factors are very highly reliable. FINDINGS DEMOGRAPHIC AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS The following tables provide the demographic and descriptive statistics of the study. 46

57 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) Table 2. Demographic Characteristics of the Participants Count Column N % 1. YOUR AGE ,29% ,71% 2. YOUR GENDER Male 63 22,83% Female ,17% 3. YOUR POSITION IN THE ORGANIZATION 4. WHAT IS YOUR MONTHLY INCOME? Public servant ,73% Worker ,67% Manager 72 12,06% Senior Manager 45 7,54% ,54% ,10% ,67% ,63% ,06% 5. YOUR MARITAL STATUS Married ,29% Single ,71% 6. FOR HOW MANY YEARS ,17% HAVE YOU WORKED IN THE ,22% INSTITUTION? ,09% ,53% 7. DO YOU HAVE ANY KNOWLEDGE ABOUT TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP? 8. DO YOU PARTICIPATE IN GROUP OR ORGANIZATIONAL WORK? 9. ARE YOU CONSIDERING TO TAKE AN ACTIVE ROLE IN DECISION MAKING MECHANISMS? 10. HAVE YOU BEEN AWARDED BY YOUR SUPERVISOR? 11. DO YOU HAVE FUTURE CAREER PLANS? 12. WHICH ONE IS MORE IMPORTANT FOR YOU IN PLANNING YOUR CAREER? 13. DO YOU WANT TO CONTINUE YOUR JOB IN THIS INSTITUTION? 14. DO YOU CONSIDER YOURSELF AS A MEMBER AND A PART OF THIS INSTITUTION? Yes ,86% No ,14% Yes ,32% No ,68% Yes ,77% No ,23% Yes ,86% No ,14% Yes ,76% No ,24% Earnings money ,65% Rank of my job ,21% Being a manager ,09% All 66 11,06% Yes ,23% No ,77% Yes ,33% No ,67% 47

58 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) The average responses of the participants were grouped so as to be used in further analyses, by taking the scale key into consideration. BASS AVOLIO TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP (MLQ) # 1, 2, 3, 4 # 5, 6, 7, 8 Intellectual Stimulation Charisma/Inspiration #9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 Idealized Influence #17, 18, 19, 20 Individualized Consideration ALLEN MEYER ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT #1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Affective Commitment #9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 Continuance Commitment #17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 Normative Commitment Leadership Factors Analyses Correlation Analysis The factors with high level of correlation are shown below according to the results of the examination of the relations among the Bass Avolio transformational leadership and Allen Meyer organizational commitment factors. The factors found to be related in the correlation analysis will be further examined in the regression analysis. Intellectual stimulation has a high positive correlation with Idealized influence and a medium positive correlation with Individualized consideration. Charisma/Inspiration has a high positive correlation with Idealized influence and a low positive correlation with Affective commitment. There is a medium positive correlation between Idealized influence and Individualized consideration. There is a low positive correlation between Individualized consideration and Affective commitment. There is a high positive correlation between continuance commitment and normative commitment. 48

59 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) Table 3. Correlation and Factor Analysis Pearson Correlation Intellectual Stimulation Charisma/ Inspiration Idealized Influence Individualized Consideration Affective Commitment Continuance Commitment Normative Commitment Intellectual 1 Stimulation Charisma/,123 1 Inspiration Idealized Influence,718,488 1 Individualized,271,060,336 1 Consideration Affective,031,155,049 -,064 1 Commitment Continuance -,052 -,058 -,100,105 -,017 1 Commitment Normative -,051 -,057 -,066,050,011,809 1 Commitment 49

60 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) H1: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Intellectual stimulation. Model 1 Idealized Influence Individualized Consideration Table 4. Coefficients a,b Unstandardized Coefficients a. Dependent Variable: Intellectual Stimulation b. Linear Regression through the Origin Standardized Coefficients B Std. Error Beta T Sig.,990,026,966 37,907,000,028,025,028 1,102,271 A one-unit increase in idealized influence leads to a 0.99-unit increase in the intellectual stimulation factor. A one-unit increase in individualized consideration leads to a 0.28-unit increase in the intellectual stimulation factor. H2: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Charisma/Inspiration. Model 1 Idealized Influence Affective Commitment a. Dependent Variable: Charisma/Inspiration b. Linear Regression through the Origin Table 5. Coefficients a,b Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients B Std. Error Beta t Sig.,739,034,741 21,857,000,251,034,252 7,418,000 50

61 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) A one-unit increase in idealized influence leads to a unit increase in the charisma/inspiration factor. H3: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Idealized Influence. A one-unit increase in affective commitment leads to a unit increase in the charisma/inspiration factor. Model 1 Individualized Consideration a. Dependent Variable: Idealized Influence b. Linear Regression through the Origin Table 6. Coefficients a,b Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients B Std. Error Beta t Sig.,950,007, ,517,000 A one-unit increase in individualized consideration leads to a unit increase in the idealized influence factor. H4: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Individualized Consideration. Model 1 Continuance Commitment Table 7. Coefficients a,b Unstandardized Coefficients a. Dependent Variable: Individualized Consideration b. Linear Regression through the Origin Standardized Coefficients B Std. Error Beta t Sig.,991,009, ,370,000 A one-unit increase in continuance commitment leads to a unit increase in the individualized consideration factor. H5: There is a correlation between the leadership factors and Continuance Commitment. 51

62 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) Model 1 Normative Commitment Table 8. Coefficients a,b Unstandardized Coefficients a. Dependent Variable: Continuance Commitment b. Linear Regression through the Origin Standardized Coefficients B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 1,004,003, ,992,000 A one-unit increase in normative commitment leads to a unit increase in the continuance factor. CONCLUSION AND ASSESSMENT The average responses of the participants were grouped so as to be used in further analyses, by taking the scale key into consideration. # 1, 2, 3, 4 Intellectual Stimulation # 5, 6, 7, 8 Charisma/Inspiration #9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 Idealized Influence #17, 18, 19, 20 Individualized Consideration #1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Affective Commitment #9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 Continuance Commitment #17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 Normative Commitment Intellectual stimulation has a high positive correlation with Idealized influence and a medium positive correlation with Individualized consideration. Charisma/Inspiration has a high positive correlation with Idealized influence and a low positive correlation with Affective commitment. There is a medium positive correlation between Idealized influence and Individualized consideration. There is a low positive correlation between Individualized consideration and Affective commitment. There is a high positive correlation between continuance commitment and normative commitment. A one-unit increase in idealized influence leads to a 0.99-unit increase in the intellec- 52

63 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) tual stimulation factor; a one-unit increase in individualized consideration leads to a 0.28-unit increase in the intellectual stimulation factor. A one-unit increase in idealized influence leads to a unit increase in the charisma/inspiration factor; a one-unit increase in affective commitment leads to a unit increase in the charisma/inspiration factor. A one-unit increase in individualized consideration leads to a unit increase in the idealized influence factor. A one-unit increase in continuance commitment leads to a unit increase in the individualized consideration factor. A one-unit increase in normative commitment leads to a unit increase in the continuance factor. REFERENCES AKAT, Ö., (1998). İşletme Politikası ve Stratejik Pazarlama, Ekin Kitapevi, Bursa BARUTÇUGİL, İ., (2004). Stratejik İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Kariyer Yayınları, İstanbul BENNIS, W.G., NANNUS, B., (1985). Leaders: The Strategies For Taking Charge, Harper and Rovv Pup, New York BLAKE, R.R., MAUTON, S., (1985). The Managerial Grid III: The Key to Leadership Excellence, Gulf Pup, Houston BASS, B.M., AVOLİO, B., (1995). MLQ- Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Mind Garden, Polo Alto, California DAĞCI, A., KARTOPU, S., (2014). Mesleki Tükenmişlik İle Dindarlık Eğilimi Arasındaki İlişki Üzerine Ampirik Bir Araştırma, Turkish Studies - International Periodical For The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 9/8 Summer DİNÇER, Ö., (1998). Stratejik Yönetim ve İşletme Politikası, 5th Edition., Beta Yayınları, İstanbul GÜÇLÜ, H., (2006). Turizm Sektöründe Durumsal Faktörlerin Örgütsel Bağlılık Üzerine Etkisi, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, Eskişehir GÜNDEN, Y., KORMAZ, M., YAHYAOĞ- LU, G., (2012). An Applied Study on Women Managers Working in Tourism Enterprises in Antalya and Muğla Region Concerning Glass Ceiling Issue and Syndrome, Akademik Bakış Dergisi, January - February No: 28 KORKMAZ, M., YAHYAOĞLU, G., ÇALIŞ- KAN, D., (2012). Aile Hekimlerinin Za- 53

64 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) man Yönetimi ve İş Performansının Uygulamalı Olarak İncelenmesi, Akademik Bakış Dergisi, March - April No: 29 KORKMAZ, M., BAYKARA, S., AKMAN, G., (2012). İşletmelerde Sürdürülebilir Rekabet Üstünlüğü İçin Pazarlama ve Satış Stratejilerinin Geliştirilmesi, Akademik Bakış Dergisi, January - February No: 28 KENDİRLİGİL, S., (2006). Çalışanların Örgütsel Vatandaşlık Davranışı Sergileme Eğilimleri Üzerinde Örgüt Kültürünün Etkisi, İstanbul University, Institute of Social Sciences, Published Master s Thesis, İstanbul KOTLER, P., NANCY, L., (2006). Kurumsal Sosyal Sorumluluk, Translated by Sibel Kaçamak, MediaCat Yayınları, İstanbul SCHWARTZ, M., ARCHIE, B.C., (2003). Corporate Social Responsibility: A Three Domain Approach, Business Ethics Quarterly, V:13, No:4, October TATARİ, B., (2003). Şirketlerin Toplumda İlişkisinde Yükselen Değer: Kurumsal Sosyal Sorumluluk, İzmir Ticaret Odası Yayınları, İzmir TERZİOĞLU, A., (2003). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Boş Zamanlarını Değerlendirme Anlayış ve Alışkanlıkları, Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Volume: 5, No: 2 TUTAR, H., (2011). Zaman Yönetimi, Seçkin Kitap Evi, İstanbul WESTBROOK, J.D., (1993). Takina Multivariate Approach to TQM, Industrial Management March-April ÖZDİL, K., KORMAZ, M., BAYKARA, S., (2012). Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanelerinde Uzman Doktorların Zaman Yönetimi, Akademik Bakış Dergisi, January - February No: 28 54

65 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) ÇALIŞANLARIN MESLEKİ TUTUM ve SOSYAL ALGILARININA YÖNELİK BİR ÖLÇEK GELİŞTİRME ÇALIŞMASI Öz: Farklı sektörlerden toplam (N=597) kişinin katılım yaptığı uygulamalı araştırmamızda geçerlilik ve güvenirliliği sağlanmış 5 li likert ölçek ve iki bölümden oluşan bir anket kullanılmıştır. Araştırmamız yaklaşık olarak 5 ay sürmüştür. Araştırma sürecine katılan tüm katılımcılar basit rassal yöntem yolu ile belirlenmiştir. Tüm katılımcılar kendi özgür düşünce ve fikirleri doğrultusunda anket formlarına tercihlerini yansıtmıştır. Anket formları katılımcılara elden, posta ve mail yolu ile gönderilmiştir. Toplam 2500 katılımcıya anket formu gönderilmiş olup, gönderilen anket formlarından sadece 872 adeti geri dönmüştür. Geri dönen anket formlarının (N=597) adeti uygulamaya uygun bulunmuştur. Elde edilen bilgiler doğrultusunda öncelikli olarak SPSS istatistik 18 programı ile Cronbach s Alpha Kat Sayısı olarak 0,928 değeri elde edilmiştir. Bu değer araştırmada kullanılan anketin oldukça yüksek güvenirlilikte olduğunu göstermektedir. Korelasyon, regresyon ve faktör analizleri ile çalışma genişletilerek, 7 alt faktör altında çalışma incelenmiştir. Yapılan analiz ve elde edilen bulgular doğrultusunda çalışanlar üzerinde liderlik etkisinin önemli ve zihinsel etkinlik konusunda farklılıklar meydana getirdiği saptanmıştır. Ayrıca liderlik kavramının çalışanların başta motivasyon ve performans üzerinde de etkili olduğu sonucunu ortaya çıkarmıştır. Zihinsel teşvik ile İdealleştirilen etki arasında yüksek dereceli pozitif ilişki, bireysel ilgi arasında orta dereceli pozitif ilişki bulunmaktadır. Bu araştırma çalışması bir geçerlilik güvenirlilik araştırması şeklindedir. Ayrıca araştırmada ölçek geliştirme yapılmıştır. Asıl araştırma öncesinde gerçekleştirilen sonuçlara ve uygulamalara baktığımızda ise; araştırmada kullanılan ölçme aleti anket ilk kez kullanıldığından, asıl araştırma öncesinde geçerlilik ve güvenirliliğin sağlanması amacıyla bir ön test gerçekleştirilmiştir. Ön teste toplam (N=125) katılımcı dahil edilmiştir. İlk ön test sonucu elde edilen veriler SPSS 18 istatistik programı ile analiz edilmiş ve Cronbach s Alpha kat sayısı olarak 0,751 değeri elde edilmiştir. İlk testte toplam 5 li likertten oluşan 56 soru ve 19 demografik şıklı soru bulunmaktaydı. Güvenirlilik değerini düşüren 16 soru iptal edilmiş ve asıl araştırmada 44 sorudan oluşan yeni bir anket formu düzenlenmiştir. Ön test sonrası elde edilen veriler ve yapılana analiz sonrasında 7 alt boyut belirlenmiş ve 44 maddelik sorular gruplandırılmıştır. Bu gruplandırma sonrasında form yeniden şekillendirilerek asıl araştırmaya geçilmiştir. İlk araştırma ÖN TEST İstanbul ve İzmit bölgesindeki toplam 26 üretim işletmesinde çalışan yönetici ve yönetilen kadrosundaki 55

66 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) çalışanlara yönelik uygulama yapılmıştır. 125 katılımcının 8 kişisi yönetici beyaz yakalıdır. 29 kişi ise orta sınıf yönetici Şef kadrosundadır. Diğer katılımcılar ise normal çalışan Yönetilen bireylerdir. İlk ön test araştırmasına katılım sağlayan bireylerin eğitim durumlarına bakıldığında ise 3 doktora, 17 yüksek lisans, 21 üniversite, 32 yüksekokul ve diğer katılımcılar ise lise ve altı eğitim almış kişilerdir. Cinsiyet dağılımı ise beyaz yakalılardan Üst Yönetim grubundan olan 2 kişi kadın, diğer 6 kişi ise erkektir. Orta sınıf Şef kadrosundaki katılımcıların ise 9 katılımcı kadın 20 kişi ise erkektir. Alt sınıf yönetilenlerin ise 62 kişi erkek 26 kişi ise kadındır. 125 katılımcının yaş ortalamaları 35,5 dir. En yüksek katılımcı yaşı 52 en düşük olanı ise 19 dur. Gelir ortalamalarına baktığımızda ise en yüksek gelir sahibi TL en alt gelir sahibi ise TL net maaş almaktadır. Gelir ortalaması ise tüm katılımcılarda TL dir. Medeni durumlarına baktığımızda ise %72 si evlidir. Ve evli olanların çocuk sayı ortalaması 2 dir. Evlilik sürelerine baktığımızda en fazla süre 28 en küçük süre ise 1 yıldır. Ortalaması ise 14,5 yıldır. Katılımcıların tamamının sosyal güvenlik kurumu SSK kaydı bulunmaktadır. Beyaz yakalı olanların ise hem SSK hem de özel sağlık sigortaları vardır. Beyaz yakalı ve orta sınıf yöneticilere bağlı oldukları kurum işletme tarafından özel araç tahsisi yapılmıştır. Bu işletmelerde çalışanların çalışma süreleri ise en yüksek olanı 15 yıl en az olanı ise 1 yıldır. İş tecrübelerine bakıldığında ise en fazla iş tecrübesine sahip olan 23 yıl en az olan ise 1 yıldır. Yöneticilik aşamasında en yüksek yöneticilik süresine sahip olan 14 yıl en düşük olan ise 2 yıldır. Tüm yönetim kadrosunda bulunan personel N=37 çalışanın tamamına çalıştıkları işletme tarafından özel araç kişisel kullandıkları araç tahsisi yapılmıştır. Bu çalışma bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması şeklindedir. Araştırma süresince uygulama öncesinde ve sonrasında alanında uzmanlaşmış 1 iş güvenliği uzmanı, 1 psikolog, 4 sosyolog, 1 ekonomist ve istatistik uzmanı ile 1 eğitim danışmanı eşlik etmiştir. Ön test araştırma süresi ise toplam 78 iş günüdür. Araştırmanın sonucunda ise; Karizma/İlham verme ile İdealleştirilen etki arasında yüksek dereceli pozitif ilişki, duygusal bağlılık arasında düşük dereceli pozitif ilişki bulunmaktadır. İdealleştirilen etki ile Bireysel ilgi arasında orta dereceli pozitif ilişki bulunmaktadır. Bireysel ilgi ile Duygusal bağlılık arasında düşük dereceli pozitif ilişki bulunmaktadır. Devamlılık bağlılığı ile normatif bağlılık arasında yüksek dereceli pozitif ilişki bulunmaktadır. İdealleştirilen etkideki bir birimlik artışa zihinsel teşvik faktöründe 0,99 birimlik, Bireysel ilgideki bir birimlik artış, zihinsel teşvik faktöründe 0,28 birimlik artışa neden olmaktadır. İdealleştirilen etkideki bir birimlik artış, karizma ilham verme faktöründe 0,739 birimlik, Duygusal bağlılıktaki bir birimlik artış, karizma ilham verme faktöründe 0,251 birimlik artışa neden olmaktadır. Bireysel ilgideki bir birimlik artış, idealleştirilen etki faktöründe 0,950 birimlik artışa neden olmaktadır. Devamlılık bağlılığındaki 56

67 ID: 466 K:12 JEL CODE: J23-M12-M54-Y8-Z1 (Management and Sociology) bir birimlik artış, bireysel ilgi faktöründe 0,991 birimlik artışa neden olmaktadır. Normatif bağlılıktaki bir birimlik artış, devamlılık faktöründe 1,004 birimlik artışa neden olmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Lider, Çalışan, Meslek, Tutum, Faktör, Performans, Motivasyon 57

68 INTERNATIONAL REFEREED ACADEMIC SOCIAL SCIENCES JOURNAL THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC GROWTH AND TRADE OPENNESS ON INCOME INEQUALITY: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS FOR TURKISH ECONOMY 1 Davuthan GÜNAYDIN 1, Murat ÇETİN 2 1 Namık Kemal University, Department of Labor Economics and Industrial Relations, Tekirdağ / Turkey 2 Namık Kemal University, Department of Economics, Tekirdağ / Turkey Abstract: Kuznets curve hypothesis suggests that there is an inverted-u shaped relation between economic growth and income inequality. This study aims to investigate the validity of the Kuznets curve hypothesis in the sample of Turkey. This study also examines the impact of trade openness on income inequality. We use Johansen-Juselius cointegration method and Granger causality test based on vector error correction model (VECM) to test the relationships among economic growth, trade openness and income inequality. Empirical results reveal that the series used in this study are stationary at first difference. Empirical results also reveal that there is a long run relationship between the variables. This study shows evidence that the Kuznets curve hypothesis is valid for Turkish economy in the long run. This study also found out that trade openness decreases income inequality in the long run. Finally, the long run causality running from economic growth and trade openness to income inequality was detected. The results can provide some policy implications related with income inequality. Key Words: Income Inequality, Economic Growth, Trade Openness, Cointegration, Causality, Turkey Doi: /IIB (1) Corresponding Author: Davuthan GÜNAYDIN, Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Departmant of Labor Economics and Industrial Relations, Tekirdağ / Turkey dgunaydin@nku. edu.tr Arrival Date Date of Admission: Article Type: (Research and Practice) Conflict of Interest No Ethics Committee No 58

69 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) 1. INTRODUCTION Income distribution has been a topic of significant debate among academics and policy makers, especially in developing countries. It is widely believed that income distribution may have harmful effects on economic growth, education, health and democracy (Dabla-Norris et al., 2015: 6-7). One of the most important factors indicating socioeconomic development level of a country is distribution of total domestic income amongst individuals. Distribution of domestic income in line with the equality principle increases individual welfare, and it enhances social consensus and trust as well. However, it is not possible to achieve an absolute equality. Economic growth, openness rate, demographic structure, wages, inequality in distribution of wealth and other social norms and traditions of the countries can result in unequal distribution of income (Nikoloski, 2013). Moreover, financial policies pursued by ruling governments have a significant influence on these inequalities (Shahbaz et al., 2007; Shahbaz & Islam, 2011). Many researchers such as Kuznets (1955), Gallo (2002) and Voitchovsky (2005) have intensified on understanding the relationship between economic growth and income distribution. In these studies the link between ekonomik growth and income inequality are examined in the context of the Kuznets curve hypothesis implying that there exists an inverted-u shaped relationship between economic growth and income inequality. In other words, economic growth leads to a gradual degradation of the income distribution in its initial stages and, after a certain level of growth, it leads to an improvement in the income inequality. So, this study investigates this hypothesis for Turkey. One of the main determinants of income inequality is trade openness. According to classical trade theory greater openness should increase the relative demand and prices for unskilled labour and creates a better distribution of wages in low and middle income countries. This theory implies that trade openness may decrease income inequality in developing countries. Meschi and Vivarelli (2007), Benar (2007), Faustino and Vali (2011) are among the empirical researchers examining the link between trade openness and income inequality. The present study also investigates this hypothesis for Turkish economy. Turkey has been a developing country which has experienced significant inequalities in income distribution. Income inequality maintains its importance for Turkish economy. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of economic growth and trade openness on income inequality in the sample of Turkey. Therefore, in this study the empiri- 59

70 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) cal validity of Kuznets curve hypothesis suggesting that there is an inverted-u relationship between economic growth and income inequality was examined. Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) (1979) and Phillips-Perron (PP) (1988) tests were applied to investigate the unit root properties of the variables used in the empirical analyses. The presence of cointegration relationship between the variables was analyzed by the Johansen-Juselius (1990) method. In addition, the causal relationships between the variables were analyzed by the Granger causality test based on vector error correction model (VECM) which was developed by Engle-Granger (1987). This study can present policy implications for Turkish economy. The rest of the study was organized as follows: Section 2 gives a brief literature review on the factors determining income inequality. Section 3 provides an assessment of the Turkish economy. Section 4 describes empirical model and methodology used in the study. Section 5 reports the empirical results in detail. Section 6 concludes the study with some policy implications. 2. LITERATURE 2.1. Theoretical Literature Income distribution refers to the dispersion of the income created within a certain period of time amongst individuals, social groups and production factors. The factors determining income inequality can be divided into two categories taking the functional and personal income distribution into account. Functional income distribution stands for the dispersion of the income obtained as a result of the production processes amongst the labor force performing the production, the capital, land and enterprise. The labor force receives a share through payment, salary and daily wage, whereas other factors receive a share through interest, unearned income, and profit. However, this distribution might contain an inequality within itself. For example, the share that labor receives can be divided as white collar/blue collar, or workers who are members or not members of a trade union (Çelik, 2004: 59). While functional income distribution is sufficient when an examination on individual income distribution is performed, it remains insufficient when the production factors obtain more than one income type (Tokol & Alper, 2014: 176). Personal income distribution stands for the share received by individuals, families and groups from the total domestic income created in a country. While it is possible to obtain an insight into the general status and course of the inequalities existing in a country with the personal income distribution, it is also used in measuring income inequalities among countries and economic systems (TÜSİAD, 60

71 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) 2000: 16). Personal income distribution is ascertained by comparing the data obtained by classifying the household income within the rates determined. In general, the examination is carried out in 5, 10 or 20 % slices. 1% slice, which yields more detailed results, is also used. Gini coefficient and Lorenz curve are the most widely used methods in measuring the personal income inequalities. Gini coefficient measures the income inequality between 0 and 1. 0 stands for absolute equality and 1 stands for absolute inequality. Lorenz curve represents the total population on the horizontal axis and personal income percentage on the vertical axis on a diagram. In addition, its length accounts for 100%, which indicates the equality to the domestic total income of country. Absolute equality line illustrated with a 45-degree angle on the diagram indicates that the income is equally distributed throughout the country. This case is theoretical and Lorenz curve remains below the absolute equality curve. The proximity of the Lorenz curve to the absolute equality means income equality. The more distantance they have, the more unequal they are. Gini coefficient equals to the area of the triangle of the area between absolute equality line and Lorenz curve, which is situated below the absolute equality line. Various factors play a role in income inequality. The most significant reason is the unequal distribution of wealth. The magnitude of the wealth that brings income determines the income level of those who possess the wealth and constitute the basis for the wealth creation as well. On the other hand, the wage gaps among dependent workers whose only income is their labor have a remarkable role in determining the income inequality. Personal capabilities and skills, education, experience and characteristics of the work, and labor union activities also play a significant role in determining wage gaps. Besides, demographic structure of a country and social norms and traditions are among the most important factors determining inequality. High rates of immigration and rapidly increasing population, which differ in line with demographic features of a country, contribute to the income inequality. Also, strict social norms and traditions, unemployment, gender, race, inherent skills, the number of the working family members and the number of the households, which determine the property distribution among the individuals, are significant parameters affecting the income inequality (Tokol & Alper, 2014: ). Other significant variables, which can influence the income inequity, include economic growth level and openness level of the country. Likewise,, the inverted-u shaped hypothesis put forward by Kuznets (1955) states that income inequality is depending on economic 61

72 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) development level of a country. It is observed that income is relatively equal at the first phases of the development, and income inequality is projected to increase with industrialization process. Income inequality declines when the country attains a certain development level, and thus low-income segments of the society will benefit from this. Many studies carried out on income inequality take income per capita as the development criterion; however, no mixed empirical results are obtained about the impact of the income per capita on the income equality. The most important approaches explaining the relationship between openness level of the country and income inequity are the theorems by Heckscher-Ohlin and Stolper-Samuelson. These theorems argue that those who possess the abundant factors of production in a country make profit from foreign trade; and those who possess the scarce factors of production lose in foreign trade. In other words, while openness reduces income inequity in poor countries, it increases income inequality in rich countries with abundant capital (Marrewijk, 2007: 100) Empirical Literature This study aims to present significant studies, which address the relationship between the factors determining income inequality theoretically. It also includes the studies investigating this relationship empirically. While some empirical studies which use time series analysis, particularly Blejer and Guererro (1990) and Mocan (1999), focus on the impact of the inflation and unemployment rate on the income inequality, Feenberg and Poterba (1993) and Auten and Carroll (1999) concentrate on the relationship between the financial policies, especially tax rates, and income inequality. Odekun and Round (2001) deal with the determinants of income inequality and their impact on economic growth for 35 African countries. Empirical findings indicate that the level of economic development, budget size and human resources are among the determinants of income inequality. Empirical findings also indicate that income inequality decreases economic growth. In addition, Kuznets curve hypothesis is not supported. Li and Zou (2004) investigate the link between savings and income inequality by using panel data for 49 industrialized and developing countries over the period The results reveal that there exists a weak negative relationship between the variables. The positive link between the variables is found in OECD and Asian countries. Using annual data from 1960 to 1990, Knowles (2005) examines the relationship between economic growth and income in- 62

73 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) equality through the regression analysis. The study employs Barro s growth regression model and finds a negative and statistically significant relationship between the variables. Rebeggiani (2005) analyzes the link between economic growth and income inequality in case of Germanian economy. The empirical results of endogeneous growth model reveal that individual income determines economic growth. The empirical results also reveal that income inequality increases economic growth. Disbudak and Suslu (2007) analyze the factors determining income inequality in the sample of Turkey by using annual data from 1963 to In this study the long run relations between the variables were estimated by ARDL bounds testing approach. The results indicated that economic growth and trade openness decrease income inequality. The results also indicated that inflation increases income inequality. It was found that the impact of trade openness on income inequality is limited. Lee (2008) tries to estimate the relationship between economic growth and income inequality. According to the empirical results of regression analysis, the Kuznets curve hypothesis is not valid for Taiwan economy. Family structure, economic structure, political leadership and public policy are among the main causes of income inequality. Zaman et al. (2011) explore the link between the impact of economic growth and income inequality on poverty in the context of panel data analysis covering Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Srilanka. The findings of panel data show that economic growth and income inequality decrease poverty. Awe and Rufus (2012) analyze the determinants of income inequality in Nigeria. Using Johansen cointegration method and error correction model (ECM), the study reveals that employment, inflation, GDP and social expenditures are the main determinants of income distribution. The study also reveals that there is no evidence supporting the validity of Kuznets curve hypothesis. Ozturk (2012) investigates the link between economic development and regional inequalities in the sample of Turkey from 1965 to 2001 by applying panel data analysis. According to the results of panel regression analysis there exists an inverted-u relationship between economic growth and regional income inequality. This implies that the Kuznets curve hypothesis is valid for Turkish economy. Aksogan and Elveren (2012) examine the links between defense, health and education 63

74 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) expenditures and income inequality for Turkish economy. Using Johansen cointegration method and ECM, they reveal that economic growth and social expenditures decrease income inequality. They also reveal that defense expenditures increases income inequality. Lee et al. (2013) examine the main determinants of income inequality in case of Korea. Classical regression analyses indicate that there exists no empirical evidence supporting the Kuznets curve hypothesis. The study reveals that investments decrease income inequality. Nikoloski (2013) applies a dynamic panel data analysis by using income inequality data for developed and developing countries from 1962 to Panel regression results show that there exists an inverted U-curve relationship between financial sector development and income inequality. These results provide an evidence for the presence of financial Kuznets curve. Artan and Kalayci (2014) investigate the main determinants of income inequality for 63 developed and developing countries. The results of panel data analysis show that there exists a negative link between trade openness and income inequality for both developed and developing countries. The results also show that there exists a positive link between foreign direct investment and income inequality in all countries. In addition, the level of democracy decreases income inequality in developed countries and it increases income inequality in developing countries. Kanberoglu and Arvas (2014) estimate the relationship between financial development and income inequality for Turkish economy. Using ARDL bounds testing approach to cointegration, they find that per capita income, inflation and private sector credits decrease income inequality. The study shows that the effect of trade openness on income inequality is positive. 3. AN ASSESSMENT ON TURKISH ECONOMY This part of the study involves the assessments on the income distribution in Turkish economy. Turkey, which aimed to achieve economic development by means of self-contained financial policies as of 1930s, has been exerting efforts towards making its economy open with the structural adaptation policies implemented under the influence of neo-liberal policies since 1980s. Within this process, some political practices, which include the transfer of the state financial enterprises to the private sector in line with the prevailing financial paradigm, were carried out. Although it was aimed to obtain necessary resources that enable the financial growth and social development via these transfers, they were 64

75 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) not sufficient to promote economic development desired due to the insufficiency of the resources owned and financial conjecture as well as the pressure elements of the structure of the transforming society. Also, political instability and the crisis environment sweeping 1990s made it impossible to achieve the desired financial success. In the general sense, 1980s and 1990s were the periods when the neo-liberal financial policies created undesired impacts particularly on the poor. It is seen that income inequality increased among majority of the OECD countries at this period. When the income distribution between 1980 and 1990 was examined in terms of the income groups in Turkey, it is seen that the share of the lowincome and middle-income groups in the total income shrank and the share of the highincome group became larger. Within this period, Turkey comes to the fore as one of OECD counties, in which the share that the low and middle-income groups received from the total income dropped most remarkably (Candaş, 2010: 12-13) is a period when a decrease was observed in the income of all income groups in the general sense. However, what was most attention grabbing about this period is that the highest rate of income loss was seen in the high-income group; and middleincome group experienced a relatively lower income loss. The loss trend continued in lowincome group. It can be considered to be a period when the poor became poorer and when a medium-income group with an increased welfare level emerged (Candaş, 2010: 14-16). It is observed that the economy policies implemented by the single-party governments in post-2000 period in Turkey, have contributed to the decline in the income equality. The analyses performed during this period by employing inequality parameters including Gini coefficient, The Average of Logarithmic Deviations, Theil Index, Half the Coefficient of Variable Square, which were prepared by using the Household Budget Analysis and Living Conditions Research data by TUIK (Turkish Statistics Institute) with the aim of measuring the income inequality, reveal similar results. Accordingly, it is observed that income inequality had a downward trend between 2002 and It is seen that in post-2007 period it has showed a horizontal trend in general. Post-2002 downward trend in income inequality most importantly resulted from that income growth created by structural changes emerged in this period not only determined the quality of the growth but also had an impact on reducing the income inequality (Selim et al., 2014: 55-56). By using the Household Budget survey and Living Conditions Research data by TUIK, it is possible to determine the trend of the 65

76 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) income inequalities by periods dividing the segments of the society into 20%. Accordingly, a decrease was observed between the income gap between the richest 20% and the poorest 20% between 2002 and It can be stated that the gap dropped from 9.5 times to 7.5 times in the aforesaid period. However, the gap did not show a downward trend in post-2007 period and a horizontal trend was observed generally. In 2010, this gap fell to 7 times. In 2011, it rose to 7.5 once again (Selim et al., 2014: 57) period, in which income inequality showed a downward trend, is striking because macro financial policies were successfully implemented in conformity with the agreements made with IMF. The structural reforms within this period, in other words the trust environment created with the new economic institution and activities, caused new investments and international capital to accelerate. The recession in the structural reforms in post-2007 period also resulted in a decline in the supply side policies. This case slowed down the development pace and made it cyclical (Selim et al., 2014: 58). Even tough minor developments were achieved in reducing the income inequality within the country during mid-2000s, it can be seen that Turkey stills ranks among the leading countries in income equality, in comparison with OECD and European Union countries. In this period, Turkey was the second worst country following Mexico among the OECD countries. A study ascertaining the income rate among EU countries between the richest and poorest 20% between 2003 and 2006 years revealed that Turkey was the top country with 9.9 times gap in 2003 and 8.1 times gap in 2006 (Candaş, 2010: 18-19). 4. EMPIRICAL MODEL AND METHOD- OLOGY Li et al., (2000) and Barro (2000) use classical Kuznets curve in their studies. In other words, they include economic growth and income inequality variables. Summers and Heston (1995), and Gyimah-Brempong and Camacho (2006) use Gini coefficient that represents income inequality and a panel data model that considers foreign trade variable. In our study, we investigated the relationship between per capita real income, square of per capita real income, trade openness and income inequality and we used time series version of the panel data model used by Summers and Heston (1995), and Gyimah-Brempong and Camacho (2006) in this regard. So, the following log-linear model can be used to estimate the relationship between the variables: 66

77 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) Where lngini t is Gini variable as an indicator of income inequality, lngdp t and lngdp 2 represent per capita real income and its square term respectively, and lntr t is trade openness ratio (i.e. the sum of total exports and imports of goods and services by the GDP). The residuals µ t are assumed to be normally distributed and white noise. The present study covered annual data from 1970 to Gini coefficient data were calculated by UTIP project team established at Texas University ( 2015). The data obtained by the university were recognized by the world literature and the data constitute the reference point for many researchers (Bahmani et al., 2012). The period was chosen because Gini coefficient data computed by UTIP team was calculated by It is fair to say that Gini coefficient data were calculated by using different methods and scales. Therefore, even though the data calculated by different Centers or statistical units cover the current period, it would be unfavorable to create a broad period by combining two different period data calculated by these two different methods and approximate the time series to current period. For this reason, it was found appropriate to carry out the empirical analysis within the relevant period in terms of ensuring integrity 1. The other variables used in the study were derived from World Development Indicators (WDI) database. All the variables were employed in their logarithmic form. The parameters a i, i=1, 2, 3, indicate the longrun elasticity estimates of income inequality with per capita real income, square of per capita real income and trade openness. Based on the theory of Kuznets curve hypothesis, the expected sign for α 1 is positive while α 2 is negative (Barro, 2000), the expected sign for a 3 is negative (Ang, 2010). Table 1 indicates descriptive statistics of the variables. Figure 1 shows time series plots of the variables in detail. 1 Due to the limitations regarding the data calculation periods, Özdemir et al. (2011) has to analyze , Artan and Kalaycı (2014) has to analyze , Awe and Rufus (2012) has to analyze , Öztürk (2012) has to analyze periods. 67

78 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) Table 1. Descriptive Statistics (Time Series Data: ; Observations: 37) Statistics/Variables lngini lngdp lngdp 2 lntr Mean Median Standard deviation Minimum Maximum Skewness Kurtosis Normal distribution (p-value) Figure 1. Time Series Plots Of The Variables 3.92 lngini 9.0 lngdp lngdp2 4.5 lntr

79 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) It is particularly important for the series to be stationary in order to determine the relationship between the variables in time series analyses correctly. The first step of the cointegration, in other words long-term balance relationship analysis, consists of investigating the integration level of the variables. ADF and PP tests are among the most widely used unit root tests in the literature. PP test was used in our study due to some of the drawbacks that ADF unit root test has. PP test is the improved version of the ADF and it is accepted that error terms have a normal distribution and do not have heteroscedasticity and serial correlation (Awe & Rufus, 2012). Upon ascertaining the integration degrees of the series with unit root tests, the second step is to investigate whether or not there is a long-term balance relationship between the variables. In fact, it is the cointegration analysis, which is an appropriate method in order to overcome spurious regression problem. Cointegration becomes important when two non-stationary variables become cointegrated (Mishra, 2011). Johansen-Juselius (1990) cointegration method is usually employed to investigate the presence of the long run relationship between the variables. This cointegration test is based on the VAR model as follow: p where Π = A i I and Γi = A j. If i= 1 j= i+ 1 the coefficient matrix Π has reduced rank r<n, then there exist nxr matrices α and β each with rank r such that Π = αβ and β y t is stationary. r represents the numbers of cointegrating relationships, the elements of α are known as the adjustment parameters in p the vector error correction model, and each column of β denotes a cointegrating vector. Johansen-Juselius developed two different tests such as the trace test and maximum eigenvalue test. These tests can be expressed as follows: Here T is the sample size and λˆ i is the i th largest canonical correlation. In the trace test the null hypothesis of r cointegrating vectors is tested against the alternative hypothesis of n cointegrating vectors. On the other hand, the maximum eigenvalue test tests the null hy- 69

80 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) pothesis of r cointegrating vectors against the alternative hypothesis of (r+1) cointegrating vectors. Johansen-Juselius procedure is very sensitive to the lag length. Therefore, AIC and SBC criteria are used to determine optimal lag length through the VAR model. After determining the presence of a cointegration between the variables, in the third the VECM approach is employed to investigate the dynamic relationships between the variables. The VECM is based on restricted VAR model and presents an evidence of the long run relationship. In this method error correction term (ECT) derived from the long run model is integrated to the VAR model as an additional variable (Mishra, 2011). In this study, the following VECM equation was used: where, Δ is the lag operator and ECT t 1 is the lagged error correction term derived from the long run relationship; ε t are error terms assumed to be N (0,σ). This term is expected to be negative and statistically significant. In the final step, the causal linkages between the variables can be examined. The Johansen- Juselius cointegration approach does not investigate the causal relationships between the variables. Therefore, this study uses Granger causality test based on VECM approach to investigate the causal relations between the variables. In this causality method error correction term (ECT t-1 ) derived from the long run model is added to the classical VAR system as an additional variable. The main feature of this approach is that it investigates both long and short run causality. The equations of the VECM Granger causality approach is expressed as follows: 70

81 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) ln gini ln gdpt (1 L) ln gdpt ln trt 2t 2 ln ginit ln gdpt x 2 ln gdpt ln trt p i 1 ECTt (6) 11i 12i 13i 21i 22i 23i (1 L) 31 i 32i 33i 41i 42i 43i 1 1t 2t 3t 4t (6) 14i 24i 34i 44i Where, (1-L) is the lag operator. ε 1t, ε 2t, ε 3t and ε 4t are the residual terms. The existence of the long run causality between the variables is determined by a significant t-statistic on the coefficient of ECT t 1. The short run causality is determined by a significant F-statistic on the first differences of the variables (Tiwari et al., 2013). 5. EMPIRICAL FINDINGS In this study firstly the unit root tests were applied to examine the unit root properties of the variables. Here, ADF and PP tests were employed. Table 2 presents the unit root results of the variables in their level and first difference. According to the results the variables have unit root problem at level. The variables were found to be stationary at first difference. This means that the variables were integrated at I(1). The results led us to apply the Johansen-Juselius cointegration test to investigate the existence of the long run relationship between the variables. 71

82 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) Table 2. The Results Of Unit Root Test Variables ADF test statistic PP test statistic lngini (0) (1) lngdp (0) (1) lngdpgdp (0) (1) lntr (0) (0) Δlngini (0)*** (0)*** Δlngdp (0)*** (0)*** Δlngdp (0)*** (0)*** Δlntr (0)*** (5)*** Notes: The model with constant and trend is used for unit root analysis. Figures in parentheses are the optimal lag orders. *** denotes the significant at 1% level of significance. After examining the unit root properties of the series the optimal lag length was determined for Johansen-Juselius cointegration test through the VAR model. Table 3 reports selection of the optimal lag length. The optimal lag length was selected as 4. The diagnostic tests which include AIC, R 2, autocorrelation lm test, heteroscedasticity ᵡ2 test and Jarque-Bera normality test show that the VAR model is robust. Table 3. Optimal Lag Length Selection Lag length AIC R 2 Outocorrelation lm test Heteroscedasticity ᵡ2 test Normality J-B test (0.335) (0.013) (0.001) (0.262) (0.272) (0.089) (0.389) (0.228) (0.061) 4* (0.545) (0.443) 5.848(0.664) Notes: * indicates the optimal lag length. Figures in parentheses are p-values. The trace and maximum eigenvalue tests developed by Johansen-Juselius were used to test the presence of a long run relationship between per capita real income, square of per capita real income, trade openness and income inequality. The empirical results of these tests are reported in Table 4. The find- 72

83 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) ings showed that there exists a cointegration vector. This means that there exists a long run relationship between the variables. Table 4. The Results of Johansen-Juselius Cointegration Test Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis Trace test statistic Critical value (5%) R=0 R = ** R 1 R = R 2 R = R 3 R = Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis Maximum eigenvalue test statistic Critical value (5%) R=0 R = *** R 1 R = R 2 R = R 3 R = Notes: Test statistics contain the results of the model with constant. *** and ** denote the significant at 1% and 5% level of significance, respectively. In consideration of normalized cointegration vector, the long run equilibrium relationship between the variables is expressed as follows: (-3.777) (3.611) (4.907) The coefficients of all explanatory variables were found to be statistically significant. The results show that there exists a positive link between per capita real income and income inequality. The results also show that there exists a negative long run relationship between the square of per capita real income and income inequality. These results support the validity of Kuznets curve hypothesis for Turkish economy. These results are in line with Öztürk (2012) and Lee et al. (2013). On the other hand, trade openness affects negatively income inequality in the long run. This finding is consistent with Disbudak and Suslu (2007), Artan and Kalayci (2014). The VECM provided information about short run estimates in detail. Table 5 reports the re- 73

84 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) sults of VECM with diagnostic tests. The diagnostic tests indicate that VECM is robust. According to the empirical results, there exists no statistically significant relationship between the variables in the short run. However, error correction term (ECT t-1 ) was found to be statistically significant with negative sign. This implies that there exists a long run relationship between the variables Table 5. The Estimation Results Of VECM Approach Variables Δlngini t-statistic Constant Δlngini(-1) Δlngini(-2) Δlngini(-3) Δlngdp(-1) Δlngdp(-2) Δlngdp(-3) Δlngdp 2 (-1) Δlngdp 2 (-2) Δlngdp 2 (-3) Δlntr(-1) Δlntr(-2) Δlntr(-3) ECT t ** Diagnostic tests R Adjusted-R F-statistic 2.153(0.062)* Normality test 0.660(0.718) Outocorrelation 0.562(0.579) Heteroscedasticity 0.219(0.642) Functional form 0.089(0.768) 74

85 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) Notes: Optimal lag length is selected using AIC. Figures in parentheses are p-values. ** and * denote the significant at 5% and 10% level of significance, respectively. The direction of causality between the variables is was determined by the Granger causality test based on VECM. The Granger causality test results are reported in Table 6. According to the findings, the coefficient of ECT t-1 was negative and statistically significant. This implies that there exists a causality running from per capita real income, square of per capita real income and trade openness to income inequality in the long run. This also implies that economic growth and trade openness cause income inequality in the long run. In the short run there exists a causality running from per capita real income and square of per capita real income to income inequality. These causality findings reveal that the Kuznetz curve hypothesis is valid for Turkish economy in the long and short runs. Table 6. The Results Of Granger Causality Test Dependent variable Short run causality (F-statistic) Long run causality (t-statistic) Δlngdp Δlngdpgdp 2 Δlntr ECT t-1 Δlngini 2.600(0.082)* 2.494(0.090)* 1.111(0.369) (0.014)** Notes: Optimal lag length is selected using AIC. Figures in parentheses are p-values. ** and * denote the significant at 5% and 10% level of significance, respectively. 6. CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLI- CATIONS Turkey has been one of the developing countries, which experiences significant imbalances in income distribution. Therefore, income inequality maintains its importance. This study empirically investigates the determinants of income inequality in case of Turkish economy. Specifically, the impact of per capita real income, square of per capita real income and trade openness on income inequality were examined by the cointegration and causality analyses. In addition, the validity of Kuznets curve hypothesis suggesting that there exists an inverted-u relationship between economic growth and income inequality was analyzed. For this purpose, Johansen-Juselius cointegration method and Engle-Granger causality test based on VECM approach were employed. The empirical results of the study can be summarized as follows. Firstly, all the variables were stationary at their first difference implying that the series are integrated at I(1). This result led us to apply Johansen-Juselius coin- 75

86 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) tegration approach in examining the long run relationship between the variables. Secondly, cointegration was found between the variables. This means that there exists a long run relationship between the variables. Thirdly, the coefficients of per capita real income and square of per capita real income were found to be positive and negative, respectively. This finding reveals that the Kuznets curve hypothesis is valid for Turkey in the long run. In addition, there exists a negative link between trade openness and income inequality meaning that trade openness decreases income inequality in the long run. Finally, in the long run a Granger causality running from per capita real income, square of per capita real income and trade openness to income inequality was determined. In the short run there exists a Granger causality running from per capita real income and square of per capita real income to income inequality. The findings show that economic growth is seen as the main factor determining income inequality in Turkey. The government should reduce income inequality without compromising economic growth target. Within this context, if a sustainable improvement is projected in income distribution, it is evident that the economic development performance by the government within the last 12 years must be sustained. In addition, trade openness is the other factor affecting income inequality in Turkish economy. Therefore, the government should display a satisfactory performance in foreign trade and especially export in order to maintain the positive developments in income distribution. Additionally, the steps to be taken by the government to achieve low inflation, low interest and high employment rate should reduce the income inequality in Turkish economy. REFERENCES AKSOĞAN, G., et. al., (2012). Türkiye de Savunma, Sağlık, Eğitim Harcamaları ve Gelir Eşitsizliği ( ): Ekonometrik Bir İnceleme. Sosyoekonomi, 1: ANG, J.B. (2010). Finance and Inequality: The Case of India. Southern Economic Journal, 76(3): ARTAN, S., et. al., (2014). Gelişmiş ve Gelişmekte Olan Ülkelerde Dışa Açıklık, Demokrasi ve Gelir Dağılımı İlişkisi. Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, 4(2): AWE, A., et. al., (2012). Determinants of Income Distribution in the Nigeria Economy: International Business and Management, 5(11): AUTEN, G., et. al., (1999). The Effects of Income Taxes on Household Income. Review of Economics and Statistics, 81(4):

87 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) BARRO, R., et. al., (2000). Inequality and Growth in a Panel of Countries. Journal of Economic Growth, 5: 5-32 BENAR, H., (2007). Has Globalization Increased Income Inequality in the MENA Region?, International Journal of Economic Perspectives, 1(4): BLEJER, M. I., et. al., (1990). The Impact of Macroeconomic Policies on Income Distribution: An Empirical Study of Philippines. Review of Economics and Statistics, 72: CANDAŞ, A., et. al., (2010). Türkiye de Eşitsizlikler: Kalıcı Eşitsizliklere Genel Bir Bakış. Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Sosyal Politika Forumu, Açık Toplum Vakfı, İstanbul ÇELİK, A., et. al., (2004). AB Ülkeleri ve Türkiye de Gelir Eşitsizliği: Piyasa Dağılımı-Yeniden Dağılım. Calışma ve Toplum, 2004/3 DABLA-NORRIS, E., et. al., (2015). Causes and Consequences of Income Inequality: A Global Perspective. IMP Staff Discussions Note, 13: 1-39 DICKEY, D.A.. et. al., (1981). Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Econometrica, 49: DİŞBUDAK, C., et. al., (2007). Türkiye de Kişisel Gelir Dağılımını Belirleyen Makroekonomik Faktörler. Ekonomik Yaklaşım, 18(65): 1-23 ENGLE, R.F., et. al., (1987). Co-integration and Error Correction: Representation, Estimation, and Testing. Econometrica, 55(2): FAUSTINO, H., et. al., (2011). The Effects of Globalisation on OECD Income Inequality: A Static and Dynamic Analysis. Technical University of Lisbon, Working Paper 12: 1-22 FEENBERG, D., et. al., (1993). Income Inequality and the Incomes of Very High Income Tax Payers: Evidence from Tax Returns. Tax Policy and the Economy, 7: GALLO, C., (2002). Economic Growth and Income Inequality: Theoretical Background and Empirical Evidence. Development Planning Unit University College London, Working Paper No. 119: 1-34 GYIMAH-BREMPONG, K. et. al., (2006). Corruption, Growth, and Income Distribution: Are there Regional Differences?. Economics of Governance, 7: JOHANSEN, S., et. al., (1990). Maximum Likelihood Estimation and Inference on Cointegration with Applications To the 77

88 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) Demand For Money. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 52(2): KANBEROĞLU, Z., et. al., (2014). Finansal Kalkınma ve Gelir Eşitsizliği: Türkiye Örneği, Sosyoekonomi, 1: KNOWLES, S., (2005). Inequality and Economic Growth: The Empirical Relationship Reconsidered in the Light of Comparable Data. The Journal of Development Studies, 41(1): KUZNETS, S., (1955). Economic Growth and Income Inequality. The American Economic Review, 45: 1-28 LEE, Y. F.,(2008). Economic Growth and Income Inequality: The Modern Taiwan Experience. Journal of Contemporary China, 17(55): LEE, H.Y., et. al., (2013). Empirical Analysis on the Determinants of Income Inequality in Korea. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 53: LI, H., et. al., (2000). Dynamics of Income Distribution. Canadian Journal of Economics, 33(4): LI, H., et. al., (2004). Savings and Income Distribution. Annals of Economics and Finance, 5: MARREWIJK, C.V., (2007). International Economics: Theory, Application and Policy. Oxford University Press MESHI, E., et. al., (2007). Trade Openness and Income Inequality in Developing Countries. CSGR Working Paper Series 232/07: 1-35 MISHRA, P.K., (2011). The Dynamics of Relationship between Exports and Economic Growth in India. Journal of Economic Sciences and Applied Research, 4(2): MOCAN, H. N., (1999). Structural Unemployment, Cyclical Unemployment, and Income Inequality. Review of Economics and Statistics, 81(1): NIKOLOSKI, Z., (2013). Financial Sector Development and Inequality: Is there a Financial Kuznets Curve?. Journal of International Development, 25: ODEKUN, M.O., et. al., (2001). Determinants of Income Inequality and Its Effects on Economic Growth: Evidence from African Countries. WIDER (World Institute for Development Economics Research) Discussion Paper No. 103: 1-36 ÖZDEMİR, D., et. al., (2011). Ekonomik Büyüme ve Gelir Dağılımı İlişkileri: Geçiş Ekonomileri Deneyimi. International Conference on Eurasian Economies,

89 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) ÖZTÜRK, L., (2012). İktisadi Kalkınma ve Bölgesel Eşitsizlikler: Türkiye Üzerine Bir Uygulama, PARADOKS Ekonomi, Sosyoloji ve Politika Dergisi, 8(2): PHILLIPS, P.C.B., et. al., (1988). Testing For Unit Root in Time Series Regression, Biometrica, 75: REBEGGIANI, L., (2005). Income Distribution and Growth: The Role of Demand Composition Revised. Chair for Economic Policy, Department of Economics, University of Hanover, Working Paper, 1-27 SELİM, R., et. al., (2014). Türkiye de Bireysel Gelir Dağılımı Eşitsizlikleri: Fonksiyonel Gelir Kaynakları ve Bölgesel Eşitsizlikler. TÜSİAD, Yayın No: TÜSİAD-T/ /554 TÜSİAD (2000). Türkiye de Bireysel Gelir Dağılım ve Yoksulluk: Avrupa Birliği İle Karşılaştırma, Yayın No: TÜSİAD-T/ /295 SHAHBAZ, M., et. al., (2007). Rural-Urban Income Inequality under Financial Development and Trade Openness in Pakistan: The Econometric Evidence. The Pakistan Development Review, 46(4): SHAHBAZ, M., et. al., (2011). Financial Development and Income Inequality in Pakistan: An Aplication of ARDL Approach: Journal of Economic Development, 36(1): SUMMERS, R., et. al., (1991). The Penn World Table (Mark 5): An Expanded Set of International Comparisons, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(2): TOKOL, A., et. al., (2014). Sosyal Politika. Bursa, Dora Yayınları, 5. Baskı TIWARI, A.K., et. al., (2013). The Environmental Kuznets Curve and The Role of Coal Consumption in India: Cointegration and Causality Analysis in An Open Economy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 18: UTIP, (2015). University of Texas Inequality Project, html (Access date: 02 September 2015) VOITCHOVSKY, S., (2005). Does the Profile of Income Inequality Matter for Economic Growth?: Distinguishing Between the Effects of Inequality in Different Parts of the Income Distribution. Journal of Economic Growth, 10: ZAMAN, K., et. al., (2011). Panel Data Analysis of Growth, Inequality and Poverty: Evidence from SAARC Countries. Journal of Yasar University, 21(6):

90 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) EKONOMİK BÜYÜME VE TİCARİ DIŞA AÇIKLIĞIN GELİR EŞİTSİZLİĞİ ÜZE- RİNDEKİ ETKİSİ: TÜRKİYE EKONOMİSİ İÇİN AMPİRİK BİR ANALİZ Öz: Gelir dağılımı teorik ve ampirik literatürde uzun zamandır tartışılan sosyoekonomik bir olgu olarak kabul edilmektedir. Gelir dağılımı gelişmekte olan ekonomilerin en önemli ilgi alanlarından birisi olarak varlığını sürdürmektedir. Yapılan ampirik araştırmalar gelir eşistizliğinin en önemli belirleyicileri arasında ekonomik büyüme ve ticari dışa açıklığın yer aldığını ortaya koymaktadır. Türkiye ekonomisi de diğer gelişmekte olan ülkeler gibi gelir dağılımında ciddi eşitsizliklerin yaşandığı bir ülke olarak ekonomik kalkınmasını hızlı bir şekilde sürdürmektedir. Bu çalışmada Türkiye ekonomisinde gelir dağılımı ve gelir eşitsizliğinin belirleyicileri üzerinde durulmaktadır. Literatürde Kuznets eğrisi hipotezi olarak bilien teori, ekonomik büyüme ile gelir eşitsizliği arasında ters-u şeklinde bir ilişkinin varlığını öne sürmektedir. Bu çalışmanın temel amacı, Kuznets eğrisi hipotezinin (yani ekonomik büyümenin gelir eşitsizliği üzerinde başlangıçta pozitif, belirli bir gelişme düzeyinden sonra ise negatif etkisinin olduğu hipotezinin) geçerliliğini Türkiye ekonomisi örneğinde araştırmaktır. Bu çalışma aynı zamanda ticari dışa açıklığın gelir eşitsizliği üzerinde negatif bir etkiye sahip olduğu hipotezini incelemektedir. Böylece çalışmanın temel amacı ekonomik büyüme ve ticari dışa açıklığın gelir eşitsizliği üzerindeki etkisini analiz etmektir. Burada her iki hipotezin test edilmesinde 3 aşamalı bir ampirik metodoloji tercih edilmiş ve uygyulamaya konmuştur. İlk aşamada ekonomik büyüme, ticari dışa açıklık ve gelir eşitsizliği değişkenlerinin durağanlık özellikleri incelenmiştir. Burada ADF ve PP birim kök testleri kullanılmıştır. PP birim kök testinin ADF testine göre daha güçlü sonuçlar verdiği bilinmektedir. İkinci aşamada ekonomik büyüme, ticari dışa açıklık ve gelir eşitsizliği değişkenleri arasında bir eşbütünleşme yani uzun dönem denge ilişkisinin olup olmadığı Johansen-Juselius eşbütünleşme tekniği ile araştırılmıştır. Bu eşbütünleşme tekniği literatürde en sık kullanılan metodlardan biridir. Bu tekniğin kullanılmasının temel koşulu değişkenlerin birinci farklarında durağan olmasıdır. Aksi takdirde bu metodu kullanmak mümkün değildir. Johansen-Juselius eşbütünleşme yaklaşımı iz testi ve maksimum öz değer testi olmak üzere iki test istatistiği geliştirmiştir. İz testinde r tane eşbütünleşme vektörünün olduğunu ifade eden sıfır hipotezi n tane eşbütünleşme vektörünün olduğu alternatif hipoteze karşı test edilir. Maksimum öz değer testinde ise r tane eşbütünleşmenin olduğu sıfır hipotezi r+1 eşbütünleşme vektörünün olduğu alternatif hipoteze karşı test edilir. Burada VAR modeli yardımıyla optimal gecikme uzunluğu AIC ve SBC kriterleri ile belirlenebilir. Dolayısyıyla bu eşbütünleşme tekni- 80

91 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) ği hem uzun dönem denge ilişkisinin olup olmadığını test ederken aynı zamanda değişkenlerin uzun dönem katsayılarını tahmin eder. Üçüncü aşamada ekonomik büyüme, ticari dışa açıklık ve gelir eşitsizliği değişkenleri arasında nedensellik ilişkilerinin yönü araştırılmaktadır. Vektör Hata Düzeltme Modeline dayalı Granger nedensellik testi bunun için kullanılan yöntemdir. Bu nedensellik testinin temel özelliği hem kısa hem de uzun dönem nedenselliğinin varlığı hakkında bilgi sunmasıdır. Bu metodolojide uzun dönem denge ilişkisinden elde edilen Hata Düzeltme Terimi klasik VAR modeline ilave bir değişken olarak eklenir. Burada Hata Düzeltme Terimi katsayısının anlamlı t-istatistiği açıklayıcı değişkenlerden bağımlı değişkene uzun dönem nedenselliğini açıklar iken bağımsız değişkenlerin farklarının gecikmelerinin bir bütün olarak anlamlı F-istatistiği ise kısa dönem nedenselliğinin varlığını açıklamaktadır. ADF ve PP birim kök testlerinin sonuçları her bir değişkenin düzey değerlerinde durağan olmadığını birinci farklarının alınmasından sonra durağan hale geldiklerini dolayısıyla değişkenlerin bütünleşme düzeyinin 1 olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu sonuç Johansen-Juselius eşbütünleşme tekniğinin kullanılmasına izin vermektedir. Bu eşbütünleşme testi için gerekli olan optimal gecikme uzunluğu VAR modeli yardımıyla 4 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Johansen-Juselius un geliştirdiği öz ve maksimum öz değer test istatistiği sonuçlarına göre ekonomik büyüme, ticari dışa açıklık ve gelir eşitsizliği değişkenleri arasında bir uzun dönem denge ilişkisi söz konusudur. Değişkenlerin uzun dönem katsayılarının tahmin sonuçları kişi başına reel gelir ile gelir eşitsizliği arasında pozitif ve istatistiki olarak anlamlı bir ilişkinin varlığını göstermektedir. Sonuçlar aynı zamanda kişi başına reel gelirin karesi ile gelir eşitsizliği arasında ise negatif ve istatistiki olarak anlamlı bir ilişkiyi ifade etmektedir. Bu sonuçlar uzun dönemde Kuznet eğrisi hipotezinin geçerli olduğunu yani ekonomik büyüme ile gelir eşitsizliği arasında önce pozitif daha sonra ise negatif bir ilişkinin varlığı ortaya çıkmaktadır. Uzun dönem sonuçları aynı zamanda ticari dışa açıklık ile gelir eşitsizliği arasında negatif ve istatistiki olarak anlamlı bir ilişkinin varlığını kanıtlamaktadır. Yani ticari dışa açıklık uzun dönemde gelir eşitsizliğini azaltmaktadır. Hata Düzeltme Katsayısının negatif ve istatistiki olarak anlamlı bulunması değişkenler arasında uzun dönem ilişkisinin varlığını kanıtlar niteliktedir. Granger nedensellik test sonuçlarına göre uzun dönemde ekonomik büyüme ve ticari dışa açıklık değişkenlerinden gelir eşitsizliğine doğru bir nedensellik tespit edilmiştir. Kısa dönemde ise ekonomik büyümeden gelir eşitsizliğine doğru bir nedensellik belirlenmiştir. Ampirik sonuçlar ekonomik büyüme ve ticari dışa açıklığın Türkiye ekonomisinde gelir eşitsizliğinin temel belirleyicileri olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu çerçevede bazı politika önerileri sunmak mümkündür. Hükümet ekonomik büyümeden taviz vermeden gelir eşitsizliğini azaltmanın yollarını aramalıdır. Son 12 yılda gösterilen büyüme 81

92 October, November, December Fall Semester Issue20 ID: 467 K:557 JEL CODE: E25-E27-E29 (Economy) performansının sürdürülmesi gerekmektedir. Ayrıca dış ticaret alanında özellikle de ihracat alanında daha reel teşvikler ile ihracat performansının geliştirilmesi gerekmektedir. Bunların yanısıra düşük enflasyon, düşük faizler ve yüksek istihdam düzeyinin gerçekleştirilmesi gelir eşitsizliğinin azaltılmasına yardımcı olacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Gelir Eşitsizliği, Ekonomik Büyüme, Ticari Dışa Açıklık, Eşbütünleşme, Nedensellik, Türkiye 82

93 INTERNATIONAL REFEREED ACADEMIC SOCIAL SCIENCES JOURNAL THE SPATIAL DIMENSION OF DEVELOPMENT: ENTREPRENEURSHIP ANALYSIS OF NUTS LEVEL-3 TR212 REGION 1 Enver Erdinç DİNÇSOY Trakya University, College of Applied Sciences, Department of Banking, Edirne / Turkey Abstract: Regional socio-economic segregation, which has been rapidly increased with the Industrial Revolution, is not the problem of only underdeveloped or developing countries, but also one of the major problems of many developed countries Oil Crisis was one of the most important events affected the approach to regional development in this long process from past to the present. Because this crisis directly affected the production activities of developed and industrialized regions (both in national and global level), and indirectly affected the economic activities of other regions (developing and underdeveloped regions), who are depending on these economies, in a negative way. In other words, this crisis has revealed that structural reforms need to be done in underdeveloped regions to let them be viable or at least reduce their dependency on developed and industrialized regions or central governments. In the same period, some structural reforms and projects have begun to be implemented in the regional sense. After the 2000s, Turkey has adopted a new regional development policy due to the increasing globalization with technological advancements and entering a new are in the Turkey-EU (European Union) relations. In this new period, micro projects and entrepreneurship with high added value and involvement of local actors receive more support rather than slow, central-based and macro projects. In such policies to be implemented to reduce the inter-regional disparities; first analyses of financial support, technical support, training programs and then socio-economic, demographic and spatial analyses of the region, where these support policies will be implemented, should be performed in detail. In this study, it has been aimed to perform spatial analysis of TR21 Thrace Region, Nuts Level 3 TR212 (Edirne) region within the scope of a spatial dimension. The survey was conducted on a total of 398 people especially living in in the city center of Edirne in order to determine local potential of the region, select appropriate regional policy tools and create economic value expected. A total of 13 Likert type questions were asked to the participants to determine demographic structure, economic status and thoughts of the participants regarding entrepreneurship. SPSS (Statistical Package of Social Sciences) 17.0 Statistical Package Program was used to analyze the data obtained. According to the results of these analyses, it has been determined that there are significant differences between people living in this region in terms of entrepreneurship by their gender, profession, educational level and income. Key Words: Regional Development, Spatial Planning, Entrepreneurship, Thrace Region, RDAs Doi: /IIB (1) Corresponding Author: Enver Erdinç DİNÇSOY, Trakya University, College of Applied Sciences, Department of Banking, Edirne / Turkey erdincdincsoy@trakya.edu.tr Arrival Date Date of Admission: Article Type: (Research and Practice) Conflict of Interest No Ethics Committee No 83

94 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) 1. INTRODUCTION In the literature, there are many studies in about regional development, local development and development projects implemented in Turkey. In addition, there are some significant work in spatial planning in line with the EU acquis regarding. However, the number of studies that cover two important concepts for Turkey is very limited. Studies discussing the subjects of regional development and spatial planning together will make important contributions to the literature. Furthermore, spatial properties of a region should be well analyzed before determining objectives and strategies for regional development, but this case should not be reduced to merely geographic conditions. There is a significant increase in the number of spatial studies and in the amount of scientific data prepared for Turkey. Many public institutions and organizations both in Turkey and EU collaborate to prepare a spatial planning in more detail and create a database. Ministry of Environment and Urbanization and Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs as well as Directorate of Cadastre and Land Registry, General Command of Mapping, Ministry of Public Works and Settlement and Ministry of Agriculture have great contributions to prepare a national geographic information infrastructure and implement IN- SPIRE 1 (Vandenbroucke & Biliouris, 2011). Region and development concepts may contain different perspectives depending on time, situation and space. Economic development can be summarized by not only increase in production and national income but also improvements in socio-cultural structure and increasing prosperity across the country. Development economics is started to be discussed in both academic work and international political discourse quite a bit after the World War II. Until 80s, development plans following deductive method, in which central governments are more dominant, were implemented due to the popularization of liberal economy (due to cyclical developments) in economic and political structures. In this period, the Oil Crisis occurred in 1973 deeply affected the approach to the concepts of region and development 2. Until this crisis, countries planned their development goals to be implemented in their developed and industrialized 1 INSPIRE stands for INfrastructure for SPatial InfoRmation in Europe and aims to create a spatial data infrastructure for sharing of environmental spatial information among public sector organizations across Europe. 2 Oil prices have increased dramatically due to the decrease in oil supply and political reasons in the last quarter of The impact of crises on the economies of western countries dependent on foreign oil and especially US economy has moved the cries to a global level. 84

95 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) regions. Underdeveloped or developing regions were forced to continue their economic activities under the influence of industrialized regions. During this crisis, economies of the industrialized regions were deeply affected. In underdeveloped and developing regions providing goods, labor, raw materials and agricultural products to the developed regions, economic activities have also come to a stopping point. Finding foreign loans for underdeveloped and developing regions has become difficult due to the economic contraction at the global level. This crisis has revealed that structural reforms need to be done in underdeveloped regions to make them viable or at least reduce their dependency on developed and industrialized regions or central governments. A new period, where local actors have become more dominant and inductive method is implemented, has come along with the concept of globalization, which has become prominent after 80s. Governance methods based on classic centralization and hierarchy were replaced by a new approach with multiactor governance and many actors such as local governments, local politicians, educational institutions, NGOs, the financial community, businesses, local employment offices and social partners have started to conduct studies together (Küçük & Güneş, 2013: 24-27). In addition, after 2000s, the concept of globalization has become more popular due to the rapid advancements in technology. Regions have started to cooperate and compete with each other in not only national but also international arena. Thus, the concept of globalization has led emergence of the concepts of local and rural regions. Subjects such as regional cooperation, regional development strategies, regional competitiveness, decentralization, strengthening local governments, rural development, reverse migration and rural infrastructure have increased the importance of the spatial dimension of development (Okur Dinçsoy, 2013a: 5,6). Turkey is no longer far behind the global developments in terms of regional policies and regional development goals. Turkey has adopted the planned period in 1963 and given priority to a balanced distribution of income and public services. A total of four development plans were implemented between the years 1963 and the period of foreign expansion emerged in the early 1980s in order to achieve formation of capital accumulation, economic growth, reduced inter-regional development disparities and increased prosperity since development plans were considered to be remedy of these problems (Takım, 2011: 173). The first examples of Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) were established in the 1950s and 1960s to provide information 85

96 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) for development plans implemented by the central government and also monitor and audit these plans (Özen, 2005: 4-6). These institutions have entered the agenda of Turkey in 1990s as Development Agencies (DAs). However, their establishment process has been accelerated after emphasizing that regional development policies should be created within appropriate legal and administrative framework of the standards of EU stated in Accession Partnership Document of 2003 (Arslan, 2010: 96-98). Integration efforts of Turkey with the EU s regional policies since the year 3 of 2002 have necessitated the creation of a new regional development policy. Success to be achieved at the local level for regional development is closely related to the selection of correct intervention tools, participation of local production factors into the production and accurate policies implemented by the central government (Noyan Yalman & Gündoğdu, 2014: 40-70). In addition, the added value that will be created by regions has gained more importance for Turkey after because reducing in- 3 In 2002, as an EU candidate member country, Turkey has started to use Statistical Classification of Territorial Units as the regional classification system. 4 In 2013, Chapter 22 Regional Policies and Coordination of Structural Instruments was open to debate. ter-regional disparities and creating regional policies in line with the EU s regional convergence 5 goals have become not a goal to be achieved but an obligation. 2. THE GOAL AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY In this study, it is aimed to analyze spatial factors of regional development concepts and TR21 Thrace Region, NUTS Level-3 TR212 (Edirne) region has been selected as the field work. The region has been selected because it has a quite different spatial dimension and economic potential compared to other regions of Turkey. In addition, one of the trending topics entrepreneurship 6 was evaluated for the region to finalize analysis results from a certain point of view. 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Entrepreneurship is important in terms of two points. First, it is an area well-supported for localization of development. In other words, 5 In short, according to neoclassical economics, Regional Convergence suggest that long-term interregional disparities or in other words, differences between national income per capita will drop down depending on the mobility of production factors. 6 It is a popular topic; because there are grant, financial support and technical support programs and training programs often offered by important local actors Development Agencies and Small and Medium Industry Development Organization. 86

97 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) it is considered to be an effective tool in regional development and reducing regional disparities. The other one is that entrepreneurship has important economic and demographic impacts on both spatial planning and spatial development. Two topics mentioned above have been discussed separately for the theoretical background of the study. First, the spatial dimension of development has been examined from a broader perspective. Secondly, the relationship between entrepreneurship and regional economy has been explained. Lastly, the theoretical background has been supported by field work to have more targetstrategy orientated analysis results. 4. PROBLEM TR212 has a great potential of goods and services with its spatial properties. However, the region has not used significantly its great potential to increase its production skills by creating a higher value added. Also, studies on regional development and spatial planning together for the region are very limited. In this context, the main approach of this study for the problem is to find out significant relations among demographic, social and economic variables in the region and to increase related policies on regional development. 5. LIMITATIONS In the field work, first the idea of local people regarding human capital and economic value added potential of TR212 region and supports given by Thrace Development Agency (Trakyaka) is tried to be determined. The survey was conducted on a total of 398 people in the center of TR212 region in order to select the appropriate regional policy tools. A total of 13 (including 5 Likert-type questions) questions were asked to the participants to determine demographic structure, economic status and thoughts of the participants regarding entrepreneurship. SPSS (Statistical Package of Social Sciences) 17.0 Statistical Package Program was employed to analyze the data obtained. In the analyses, it has been tested that whether there are differences between local people in terms of entrepreneurship by their gender, profession, educational level and income. Furthermore, expectations of local people from Trakyaka have been identified. Therefore, In the future studies, the scope and concept of the study should be extended over the Thrace Region in the purview of Trakyaka. 87

98 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) 6. SPATIAL DIMENSION OF DEVEL- OPMENT From a macro perspective, either increase in national data or positive improvements are expected from development. However, it cannot be ignored that national data is composed of the sum of regional data. In other words, development of a region using its own resources will not only contribute to its own economy, but also make great contribution to the national economy. Particularly, healthy growth that will create employment in sectors with higher multiplier effect should be preferred. However, today, the number of cities having difficulties related to sustainable development goals due to the problems in regard with migration, financial resources, skilled labor, infrastructure and geographical and climate changes is increasing rapidly. There may be a wide range of reasons for spatial planning and growth like natural factors and socio-economic reasons. It is very clear that natural factors as well as socio-economic factors affect spatial planning and growth in a country carrying a higher risk of having earthquakes like our country. Economic goals of regional and urban planning are usually dominant and employment is generally the main issue of these plans. Today, there are many regions that need to increase their employment opportunities in Turkey. These plans are usually industrialization orientated, so environmental dimensions are ignored. Although such spatial planning changes the structure and lets to an increase in growth of the city, protection of air, water, soil and vegetation becomes more difficult (Dinçsoy, 2013: 11). It is very obvious that sectors selected for a region don t conform other regions. In other words, it is difficult to make a single definition of spatial planning since it may be in different scales for different spaces. At this point, it is necessary to pay attention to the sectoral harmony and cooperation between different regions. The primary goal should be having regions/cities sharing with each other rather than having conflicts between them. In 1999, the study European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP): Towards Balanced and Sustainable Development of the Territory of the European Union prepared by Committee on Spatial Development and published by European Commission has become an important guide in this area. There are three main goals and three main policies under the Spatial Approach at European Level underlying the objectives of the European Spatial Development Perspective (EC, 1999). Main Goals: Economic and social cohesion 88

99 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) Conservation of natural resources and cultural heritage More balanced competitiveness of the European territory Main Policies: Development of a balanced and polycentric urban system and a new urban-rural relationship Securing parity of access to infrastructure and knowledge Sustainable development, prudent management and protection of nature and cultural heritage Desmet and Rossi-Hansberg (2014) have emphasized that development may vary from place to place and investigated the spatial development within the scope of four main elements as follows; locations, trade, investment, and technology. Locations are the lands, where firms produce in manufacturing or services. Trade, which is done in goods and services by firms, incurs transport costs. Investment is the financial effort of firms that improves their technology. Technology is the diffusion, which is spatially in locations. In Turkey, social, cultural, and economic change began in the 1950s when migration from villages to cities accelerated. Seeking solutions to the problems of this change brought up spatial planning systems in rural areas. And when the planned period began in the 1960s, scattered rural settlements emerged as one of the factors that hinder development in rural areas. Insufficient agricultural income, agricultural land fragmentation, increasing use of machinery, education in metropolitan cities, unsatisfactory health services, low social conditions, security problems and inadequateness of public policies can be counted as the most significant causes the migration from rural to urban areas in Turkey (Okur Dinçsoy, 2013b: 56). In Turkey, there are five key action plans that were prepared in regional scale in order to promote spatial development and planning 7. Since it is difficult to coordinate the spatial development and planning by central government(s), it is important to have active participation of local actors such as regional development agencies 8. For example, DO- KAP Action Plan is one of the most comprehensive action plans prepared on this issue and it covers three development agencies. It was very important to ensure coordination 7 These are; Eastern Anatolia Project (DAP) Action Plan, the Eastern Black Sea Project (DOKAP) Action Plan, the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) Action Plan, Istanbul International Financial Center Strategy and Action Plan, Konya Plain Project (KOP) Action Plan. 8 See the grounds of Law on Establishment, Coordination and Duties of Development Agency No. 5449, p.10 89

100 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) and interaction between protects in order to increase the impact of projects and activities in the Action Plan and ensure their sustainability. In addition, five development axes were identified in determination and implementation of the activities based on the principle of participation (TCKB, 2015). Tourism and Environmental Sustainability Economic Development Infrastructure and Urban Development Social Development Development of Institutional Capacity at Local Level Objectives and policies introduced in ESPD and above mentioned development axes are important topics that should be considered in evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of urban development. However, it is important to have up-to-date primary and secondary data sources to be used in the selection of sectors while creating spatial plans and performing spatial analyses of regions/cities. Mostly universities, governorates, municipalities and other public institutions, private sector and NGOs are collecting data for different purposes 9. Primary data should be supported by up-to-date secondary data sources. Otherwise, the importance of primary data sources 9 The previously collected data is referred to secondary data source and if there are secondary data available in a subject, collecting primary data may cause waste of time and resources. will further increase (in case of failure of secondary data sources). 7. REGIONAL ECONOMY AND EN- TREPRENEURSHIP Turkey has prepared medium and long term national and regional development plans for many years in order to both solve macroeconomic problems and overcome regional disparities and still continues to prepare such plans. However, priorities included in these plans constantly changed over the years and added value expected from regional development initiatives couldn t be reached. One of the important reasons of this is high import dependence of Turkish economy in production. In other words, the degree of dependence on foreign factors for production is high in Turkey; these factors are the lack of sufficient accumulation of capital, disadvantaged situation of the country in terms of natural resources (particularly energy resources), lack of professional labor force, dependence on foreign technology that increases the efficiency of production factors and inadequate number of entrepreneurs. At this point, we can define entrepreneurs as individuals who combine all production activities together, establish companies and perform activities in these businesses. According to Özkan (2003), an entrepreneur should be capable of taking risks, knowing the operational functioning of the markets, producing know-how, marketing 90

101 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) the productions, managing an enterprise and evaluating the cooperation opportunities to be successful (Özkan, 2003: ). In addition to personal factors affecting entrepreneurship mentioned above, there are also technical, spatial, public, social, economic and legal factors. In this regard, Development of entrepreneurship in Turkey can be analyzed in two stages. First, it is the period until 1980s in parallel with the implementation of plans and policies. In this period, the government was actively involved in economy and production. There was a private sector developed by using currency allocation behind tariff walls, cheap inputs produced by state-owned enterprises and negative interest rates concentrated especially in developed cities such as İstanbul, Ankara and İzmir (Çokgezen, 2012: 46-50). The other one is the period covers the years after An important economic structural transformation began in 1980 and the neo-liberal economic policies have gained importance. This transformation is reflected in the development plans and still continues as a period that aims to provide the necessary capital accumulation for industrialization and pave the way for private entrepreneurship. In addition, in the period after 80s, incentives towards strengthening local potential in Priority Regions for Development (PRD) and supporting local entrepreneurs have been the decisive factor in Turkey s regional policy along with the rise of internally sourced development theories in the regional economy (Korel, 2005). The contribution of SMEs to the increase of employment, entrepreneurship and overall economic performance has been discussed extensively after 1990s. In 1996, promotion decree for SMEs has been issued and 29 cities were included in Cities that will receive Immediate Support by a change made in 1998 (Duran, 1998: 194) 10. Creating added value in a region by increasing the competitiveness of the private sector and supporting entrepreneurs conforms to the definition of region at global level. Improving competitiveness of regions not only at the national level, but also at the global level is one of the inevitable results of current conditions. At this point, the financial and technical supports provided by RDAs to local entrepreneurs and SMEs become more important. In the study of Maç (2006), the main reasons for the establishments of RDAs are summarized as implementing regional strategies, supporting local and regional entrepreneurship, assisting in delivery of infrastructure services, seeking local-regional solutions for near future of private sector, and searching financial guarantees and solutions for new 10 Citation: Murat ÇOKGEZEN (2012). Entrepreneurship and Local Development in Turkey, ITO Publications, Istanbul, p

102 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) products and services to meet regional demands. In addition, the part related to entrepreneurship in the Law 11 about establishment and coordination of RDAs is remarkable: Providing technical support to the planning studies of local governments, Contributing to the capacity improvement of the region regarding rural and local development in accordance with regional plan and programs, Supporting new entrepreneurs in small and medium-sized businesses by providing cooperation with relevant institutions in the areas such as management, production, promotion, marketing, technology, finance, labor organizations and trainings, Promoting business and investment opportunities of the region in national and international level in cooperation with relevant institutions. In Turkey, great effort has been spent in the field of entrepreneurship and we have come to a certain stage. However, there are still important issues that differ from place to place or region to region entrepreneurs are facing. The lack of private entrepreneurship and capital accumulation play important role in 11 Was adopted on 25 January 2006 and entered into force on 08 February 2006 after being published in the Official Gazette underdevelopment of the regions and their failure of industrialization. Both government and large enterprises should hear the voice of local people by investing and implementing new projects in regions in order to reduce the inter-regional differences in terms of development. 8. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THRACE REGION TR21 is one of the regions of Turkey located north western part of the country bordering Greece and Bulgaria, composed of 3 cities 12 and 26 districts and had a coast on three seas (Figure 1). Istanbul, which is located in the east of the region, has many positive/negative social, economic and environmental impacts on the region. It is not possible for Thrace to not to be affected by expansion and structural transformation of Istanbul. Industrialization movement in TR211 began after 1980 and TR21, Çorlu, Çerkezköy and Lüleburgaz districts became industrial zones along with the impact of rapid industrialization; a different population structure was formed in the region by attracting migrants coming for employment opportunities from different cultures. TR212 and TR213 seem slower in terms of population growth and 12 According to the Statistical Classification of Territorial Units (NUTS), TR21 Thrace Region covers Tekirdağ (TR211), Edirne (TR212) and Kırklareli (TR213) provinces. 92

103 ID: 460 K:442 JEL CODE: R1-R11-R12-R58 (Economics and Entrepreneurship) sometimes there are migrating people leaving the region. Figure 1. Detailed Mapping of Thrace Region in Turkey According to the sectoral distribution of the registered enterprises, Tekirdag is the leader of the region with enterprises and the textile companies in Turkey is occupied in Tekirdag. The number of registered enterprises are 265 in Edirne and 267 in Kirklareli, respectively. Tekirdag has a big lead except for food, beverage, and tobacco industry, in which Edirne and Kirklareli should produce high value added products (Okur Dinçsoy, 2013b: 58). As spatial development scenarios, the eastern part of the region can be regarded as industry and service areas, whereas its western part can be characterized as fertile agricultural lands. According to the spatial analysis 13, there are five lines in regard with spatial development of the region. First one is the line of north, the second is the line of İstanbul-Kırklareli, the third is the line of İstanbul-Edirne (middle line), the forth is the line of İstanbul-Tekirdağ- İpsala and the fifth is the line of Tekirdağ- Şarköy, respectively. Spatial properties and development potential of each line and their interactions are different. In this study, only the line of İstanbul-Edirne will be discussed within the scope of the study. Istanbul-Edirne line consists of a wide plain. This is an area that can be cultivated, but it is difficult to find water from the upper part of Luleburgaz. This situation negatively affects the issue of diversification of crops and livestock. In the agricultural field, the pollution problem of Ergene has negative impacts on potential of the region. On this line, Luleburgaz District shows significant progress towards becoming a social center. This leads this district to receive a significant flow from other provinces and districts surrounding Luleburgaz. Babaeski district has some spatial advantages. General economic structure of the district is predominantly based on agricultural activities. There is another district called Pehlivanköy close to this line. How- 13 Citation: Spatial Development Specialized Commission Report prepared by the author for Trakyaka is used. 93