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1 international International A JESI Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences Volume 4, Issue 2, July 2014 anadolu journal Editor: Esra CEYHAN of educational sciences ISBN:

2 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Copyright 2011 ANADOLU JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL All rights reserved. No part of AJESI's articles may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrival system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Published in TURKEY Contact Address: Prof.Dr. Esra CEYHAN AJESI, Editor in Chief Eskişehir-Turkey

3 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) ISSN Editor-in-Chief Esra Ceyhan Anadolu University, Turkey Associate Editors Handan Deveci Anadolu University, Turkey Nazlı Gökçe Anadolu University, Turkey

4 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Advisory Board Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Ali Öztürk, Anadolu University, Turkey Ann D. Thompson, Iowa State University, USA Atilla Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Turkey Belva Collins, University of Kentucky, USA Clement Gine Gine, Blanqerna Universitat Ramon Rluil, Spain Colin Latchem, Open Learning Consultant, Australia Coşkun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey Esra Ceyhan, Anadolu University, Turkey H. Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Gottfried Diller, Heidelbeg University, Germany Handan Deveci, Heidelbeg University, Germany Lynee Schrum, George Mason University, USA Nazlı Gökçe, Anadolu University, Turkey Sezgin Vuran, Anadolu University, Turkey Şefik Yaşar, Anadolu University, Turkey İ. Özgür Soğancı, Anadolu University, Turkey Zülal Balpınar, Anadolu University, Turkey Review Board Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Abdülkadir Erdoğan, Anadolu University, Turkey Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, Turkey Adnan Boyacı, Anadolu University, Turkey Ahmet Doğanay, Çukurova University, Turkey Ahmet Naci Çoklar, Konya University, Turkey Ali Ersoy, Anadolu University, Turkey Ali Merç, Anadolu University, Turkey Ali Öztürk, Anadolu University, Turkey Ann D. Thompson, Iowa State University, USA Arife Figen Ersoy, Anadolu University, Turkey Arzu Arıkan, Anadolu University, Turkey Atilla Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Turkey Aykut Ceyhan, Anadolu University, Turkey Aysun Çolak, Anadolu University, Turkey Ayşe Sibel Türküm, Anadolu University, Turkey Bahadır Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey Bahattin Acat, Osmangazi University, Turkey Baki Duy, Osmangazi University, Turkey Belgin Aydın, Anadolu University, Turkey Belva Collins, University of Kentucky, USA Betül Yayan, Anadolu University, Turkey Bilge Çam Aktaş, Anadolu University, Turkey Bircan Ergün Başak, Anadolu University, Turkey Burçin Türkcan, Anadolu University, Turkey

5 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey Clement Gine Gine, Blanquerna - Universitat Ramon Rluil, Spain Colin Latchem, Open Learning Consultant, Australia Coşkun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey Çiğdem Suzan Çardak, Anadolu University, Turkey Dilek Tanışlı, Anadolu University, Turkey E. Aysın Küçükyılmaz, Anadolu University, Turkey Elvan Günel, Anadolu University, Turkey Erdoğan Kaya, Anadolu University, Turkey Eren Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey E. Aysın Küçükyılmaz, Anadolu University, Turkey Esergül Balcı Bucak, Ege University, Turkey Esmahan Ağaoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey Esra Ceyhan, Anadolu University, Turkey Fatih Karabacak, Anadolu University, Turkey Fatma Hülya Özcan, Anadolu University, Turkey Gottfried Diller, Heidelbeg University, Germany Gökhan Serin, Anadolu University, Turkey Gül Durmuşoğlu Köse, Anadolu University, Turkey Gülsün Kurubacak, Anadolu University, Turkey Güner Ilıcan, Anadolu University, Turkey Gürhan Can, Anadolu University, Turkey Handan Deveci, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Çekiç, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Erkek, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Gürgür, Anadolu University, Turkey Hatice Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Hatice Zeynep İnan, Dumlupınar University, Turkey Hıdır Karaduman, Anadolu University, Turkey Hüseyin Anılan, Osmangazi University, Turkey Hülya İpek, Anadolu University, Turkey Işıl Kabakçı Yurdakul, Anadolu University, Turkey İbrahim H. Diken, Anadolu University, Turkey İlkur İstifçi, Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Keçik, Anadolu University, Turkey İ. Özgür Soğancı, Anadolu University, Turkey Kerem Kılıçer, Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey Kıymet Güven, Anadolu University, Turkey Kibar Evren Bolat Aydoğan, Anadolu University, Turkey Kürşat Yenilmez, Osmangazi University, Turkey Lynee Schrum, George Mason University, USA M. Can Şahin, Çukurova University, Turkey Mehmet Cem Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey Mehmet Gültekin, Anadolu University, Turkey Mehmet Şişman, Osmangazi University, Turkey Meral Güven, Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Ören, Anadolu University, Turkey Murat Koparan Anadolu University, Turkey Mustafa Sağlam, Anadolu University, Turkey Müyesser Ceylan, Anadolu University, Turkey

6 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Necla Coşkun, Anadolu University, Turkey Nazlı Gökçe, Anadolu University, Turkey Nil Duban, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey Nilüfer Köse, Anadolu University, Turkey Nurhan Tekerek, Anadolu University, Turkey Oktay Cem Adıgüzel, Anadolu University, Turkey Ozan Tunca, Anadolu University, Turkey Ömer Uysal, Anadolu University, Turkey Önder Orhun, Anadolu University, Turkey Özcan Özgür Dursun, Anadolu University, Turkey Özlem Kaya, Anadolu University, Turkey Özgür Yıldırım, Anadolu University, Turkey Pelin Yalçınoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey Pınar Girmen, Osmangazi University, Turkey Saime Şengün Anagün, Osmangazi University, Turkey Sayım Aktay, Giresun University, Turkey Sema Ünlüer, Anadolu University, Turkey Semahat Işıl Açıkalın, Anadolu University, Turkey Serap Erdoğan, Anadolu University, Turkey Serkan Çankaya, Anadolu University, Turkey Serkan Şendağ, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Turkey Sezgin Vuran, Anadolu University, Turkey Suzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey Şemsettin Edeer, Anadolu University, Turkey Şemsettin Gündüz, Konya University, Turkey Şerife Dilek Belet, Anadolu University, Turkey Şefik Yaşar, Anadolu University, Turkey Şirin Benuğur, Anadolu University, Turkey Tahir Balcı, Çukurova University, Turkey Tangül Uygur Kabael, Anadolu University, Turkey Tayfun Tanyeri, Pamukkale University, Turkey Tevhide Kargın, Ankara University, Turkey Tuba Ada, Anadolu University, Turkey Tuba Çengelci Köse, Anadolu University, Turkey Tuğba Selanik Ay, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Uğur Sak, Anadolu University, Turkey Ümit Deniz Turan, Anadolu University, Turkey Ümit Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey Yavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, Turkey Yıldız Kurtyılmaz, Anadolu University, Turkey Yusuf Levent Şahin, Anadolu University, Turkey Yüksel Kocadoru, Anadolu University, Turkey Zühal Çubukçu, Osmangazi University, Turkey Zülal Balpınar, Anadolu University, Turkey

7 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Administrative & Technical Staff Uğur Gezer, Anadolu University, Turkey Yusuf Öztürk, Anadolu University, Turkey

8 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International (AJESI) (ISSN ) is published biannual (January and July) at the For all enquiries regarding the AJESI, please contact Prof.Dr. Esra CEYHAN, Editor-In-Chief, AJESI, Anadolu University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Yunus Emre Campus, 26470, Eskisehir, TURKEY, Phone #: /3581, Fax # : , eceyhan@anadolu.edu.tr; ebe@anadolu.edu.tr

9 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Table of Contents Prevalence of Counseling Needs in Late Adolescent College Students of 1 India Suneetha Kandi Input Processing of Turkish Learners of English from Beginner and Advanced 23 Level of Proficiency Eda Duruk Fatma Hülya Özcan The Relationship between Teacher s Perceived Organizational Culture of 41 School and their Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction Javad Armani Saribagloo Firouzeh Sepahrian Azar Hojjat Mahmoudi Teacher Effectiveness in Relation to Type of Institution, Emotional Intelligence 63 and Teaching Experience Amit Kauts Vijay Kumar Chechi Culture Perception of Art and Design Students Come in Turkey through 82 International Erasmus Program Suzan Duygu Erişti Assessment of the Reliability and Validity of PLSI in a Turkish Higher 108 Education Institution Çiğdem Suzan Çardak Meral Güven The Relationship between WTC Level and LLS Use among Turkish EFL 133 Learners Ali Merç

10 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 1 Prevalence of Counseling Needs in Late Adolescent College Students of India Suneetha Kandi Andhra University, India sunikandi@yahoo.com Abstract Prevalence of counseling needs of college students studying professional courses is assessed (579 females; 459 males) students of 13 professional colleges (Engineering, Medicine & Pharmacy) in two districts of Andhra Pradesh, India participated. Average age of the late adolescence sample is Data is collected by purposive random sampling using specially designed tool Student Counseling Needs Questionnaire. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences Prevalence rates of counseling needs on five dimensions: academic, personality/adjustment, social, family and clinical are identified. Analysis of results indicated high prevalence rates in the academic dimension and low in the family dimension. The top five needs are to enhance communication skills, memory techniques, learning methods, attention/concentration, and work commitment. Significant gender differences are found. Keywords: Counseling needs, college students, professional courses, Student Counseling Needs Questionnaire, late adolescents.

11 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 2 Introduction Higher education system in India is the third largest in the world after China and United States in terms of enrolment. Regarding the number of institutions, India is the largest higher education system in the world with institutions out of which there are 634 universities and 33023colleges (University Grants Commission, 2012). Presently about 12.4 percent of students go for higher education from the country (Gupta & Gupta, 2012). The institutional framework for higher education in India consists of Universities established by an Act of Parliament (Central Universities) or of a State Legislature (State Universities), Deemed Universities, Institutes of National Importance (prestigious institutions), and Institutions established by State Legislative Act and colleges affiliated with the University (both government-aided and unaided) (Kaul, 2006). In India technical/professional education is treated as a separate sector. There are 65 centrally funded institutions. Additionally, State Governments have also set up technical institutions. All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and equivalent sectoral regulators (like the Medical Council of India) both approve and regulate technical institutions in engineering/technology, pharmacy, architecture, hotel management & catering technology, management studies, computer applications and applied arts & crafts. According to a report by ICRIER, New Delhi (Kaul, 2006), India is home to the world s largest pool of scientific and knowledge workers and produces 400,000 engineers per year. National bodies like the UGC, AICTE and others, made it mandatory for all higher educational institutions to recruit a fulltime counseling psychologist due to the increasing number of students enrolling themselves in higher education. But as of today only few institutions have a fulltime counselor on the campus although the problems in the student population is on the rise. Studies assessing counseling needs of adolescent college students revealed greater prevalence of problems

12 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 3 related to alcoholism, childhood sexual abuse, physical or emotional abuse, depression, anxiety, panic attack, career uncertainty, academic procrastination, social anxiety, fear of failure and others (e.g., Witchel, 1991; Gallagher, Galvin, & Kelleher, 1992; Bishop, Bauer, & Becker, 1998). Several researchers in India focused on adolescent college students of varying professional courses like medicine (Mayya & Roff, 2004; Rustagi, Taneja, Mishra & Ingle, 2011; Supe, 1998), engineering, arts & science (Kumar & Panchanatham, 2010; Ramya & Parthasarathy, 2009) who identified stress inducing problem areas and coping strategies. Verma, Sharma, & Larson (2002) found that adolescents are spending one third of their waking time in school-related activities and academic work led to negative subjective states. Alcázar-Olán and Deffenbacher (2013) conducted a study on Mexican youth with high anger and explored their counseling needs. The counseling needs of undergraduate nursing students of Nigeria (Omigbodun, Onibokun, Yusuf, Odukogbe, & Omigbodun, 2004) showed that many of them sought counseling in the areas of academics, finances, and relationships. Sodhi, Chhabra, and Goel (2012) in their study on male adolescent sample of India found that academic problems were related with depression, substance abuse and type of family environment. Muzammil, Kishore & Semwal (2009) found overall prevalence of psychosocial problems among the adolescents was 31.2% while Arun and Chavan (2009) reported prevalence rate of 45.8% with psychological problems. Prevalence of depression among adolescents in pediatric care settings in India is reported to be 11.2% (Nair, Paul, & Ramany, 2004). Other studies on wider age ranges of adolescents indicated that depression in adolescents is on the rise due to academic pressures (Taj, 1999; Verma et al., 2002). In 1990, the Indian suicide rate was 8.9 per per year according to the National Crime Records Bureau 1992 Report. Several investigators who studied suicide in different parts of India have reported suicide rates varying from 6.8 to 58.3/100,000

13 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 4 (Gururaj & Isaac, 2001; Nandi et al., 1979; National Crime Records Bureau, 1999; Ponnudurai, 1996; Trivedi, Srivastava, & Tandon, 2005; Vijaykumar & Rajkumar, 1999). During college years many students are confronted with challenging academic, social and personal needs. These needs may vary with changes in age, experience, socioeconomic status, gender, race or ethnicity and social trends (Carney & Barak, 1976; Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 1998). Therefore, researchers urge for an accurate and regular assessment of college students needs (e.g., Gallagher, et al., 1992; Sharma, Grover, & Chaturvedi, 2008). Although few studies, as discussed above, tried to focus on the problems of Indian adolescents (Carson, Chowdhury, Perry, & Pati, 1999; Garg, Narula, & Dhabarde, 2002; Aggarwal, Prabhu, Anand, & Kotwal, 2007) more direct research is needed to investigate the current problems of the students for which they seek counseling. India has the highest number of adolescent population. If the problems faced by the adolescents in terms of the counseling needs are identified then attempts at helping them overcome these problems can be initiated. It will lead to adopting prevention strategies for stress and suicides (Vijaykumar, 2007) in this sensitive population. This study on prevalence of counseling needs of college students encompassing several dimensions and covering various aspects of life, is an attempt in this direction. Counseling needs are the needs/problems of the students for which they want to seek counseling in order to help cope with those problems. Methodology This study aimed to explore the counseling needs of the students of professional colleges belonging to Engineering, Medicine and Pharmacy streams and to identify the prevalence of counseling needs in different areas/dimensions.the participants of the study are adolescents belonging to the districts of Visakhapatnam and Vizianagaram, two of the rapidly developing districts of Andhra

14 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 5 Pradesh, India. Students were randomly selected based on the selection criteria; a) 1 st or 2 nd year professional college student, b) 17 to 19 years of age, and, c) willing to participate in the study. Data was collected by using the Student Counseling Needs Questionnaire (Suneetha, 2011). The Socio-economic data and recent educational performance in the Engineering Agricultural and Medical Common Entrance Test (EMCET) has also been collected (these results will be presented elsewhere). Kuppuswami s Socio-Economic Status scale (Kuppuswamy, 1981) is widely used to measure the socio-economic status and is suitable for student population. Kumar, Gupta, and Kishore (2012) developed the revision of the scale according to the changed economic scenario. The SES of a student is determined in terms of three variables viz., education, occupation and income of parents. The Student Counseling Needs Questionnaire was developed by the investigator. A survey of literature indicated that no valid tool for measuring the counseling needs of Indian college students. Although there are few such questionnaires, for example, Survey of Student Needs developed by Gallagher and Scheuring (1978) and UAE University Counseling Needs Questionnaire by Smadi (1998), these are not applicable to the Indian college population. The reliability of the test is found to be This tool measures counseling needs in five dimensions. They are Academic, Personality/Adjustment, Social, Family and Clinical Needs. There are a total of 52 items which are constructed on a 3-point scale: 1 Not Needed; 2 Somewhat Needed; 3 Most Needed. The scores for not needed is 0 ; for somewhat needed it is 1 and for most needed it is 2. So the total score ranged from 0 to 104. After ascertaining that the students qualified for each criteria above, they were debriefed about further details of the study. Those who volunteered to participate signed the Consent Form. Then participants filled in the Questionnaires. Data was collected from a total of 13 professional colleges using purposive random sampling. The total number of participants of this study are 1038

15 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 6 out of which the number of females is 579 and males is 459. The ages of the sample ranged from 17 to 19 years. The average age is Results Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciencs. The analysis of the data indicated several unmet needs of professional college students. The top five Unmet Needs are: 1. Enhance Communication Skills 2. Memory Improvement Techniques 3. Effective Learning Methods 4. Attention/Concentration Improvement 5. Increase Work Commitment 82.70% of the students indicated they have an unmet need in enhancing communication skills.out of which 37.60% the need for counseling is most needed and for 45.10% it is somewhat needed (See Table 1). The other four top needs listed above pertain to academic dimension with prevalence rates of 78%, 75.9%, 75.2%, 71.1% respectively % of the students indicated they have problems making decisions and hence sought counseling. Efficient study habits (67.4%), understanding subject matter (65%), and improve note taking skills (64.3%) are again academic related needs % students had an unmet need to overcome shyness (personality/adjustment dimension). Of these, for 26.30% counseling is most needed. Another need in this dimension that had the next greater prevalence is to increase self-confidence. A total of 64.10% indicated there is an unmet need % of the students had an unmet need in gaining meaning in life.

16 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 7 Table 1 Prevalence of Unmet Counseling Needs in Different Dimensions Counseling Need % M N* % S N** % Total ACADEMIC NEEDS Memory Improvement Techniques Effective Learning Methods Attention/Concentration Improvement Increase Work Commitment Efficient Study Habits Understanding Subject Matter Improve Note Taking Skills Increase Self-Motivation in studies Develop Interest in Studies Improve Writing Skills Set relevant Goals Frame proper Time table Coping with Distractions while Studying Managing Exam Stress Coping with Work Pressure (Stress/tension) Problems due to Medium of Instruction PERSONALITY/ADJUSTMENT NEEDS Improve Decision Making Increase Self Confidence

17 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 8 Gain Meaning in Life Overcome Fear of Failure Increase Self Control/patience Lethargy Anger Management Instil Self Discipline Happiness Mood Control SOCIAL NEEDS Enhance Communication Skills Overcome Shyness Assertiveness - Ability to say No ; Conflict Management Overcome Infatuations Coping with broken relationships Facing Peer Pressure Compassion Ability to think about others Overcome loneliness Respect Self & Others FAMILY NEEDS Financial Problems Adjustment with other relatives Homesickness Adjustment with Parents

18 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 9 Adjustment with siblings Family disputes Lack of Family support CLINICAL NEEDS Uncontrollable disturbing thoughts Coping with Depression Sleepy Tiredness/weakness Health Problems Changing Bad Habits Phobias Intense Fears Sleeplessness Nightmares Suicidal attempt/ suicidal thoughts Note. *Most Needed. ** Somewhat Needed The Counseling needs of psychological relevance are listed here from the remaining given in the Table % are facing exam stress since they opted for counseling to overcome it while 58.70% needed to overcome fear of failure and 53% opted for assistance to cope with work pressure. It is important to note that 57.40% needed to cope with uncontrollable disturbing thoughts and 50.40% have a need to cope with depression. Of these, 17.60% marked help is most needed option and 32.80% somewhat needed option % have difficulties coping with broken relationships and 45.60% are facing loneliness.

19 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) % reported they need counseling in overcoming nightmares and 36.70% to overcome phobias of one sort or the other % needed counseling to deal with suicidal attempts/suicidal thoughts out of which 4.30% opted for most needed and 13.30% for somewhat needed.39.70% of the students had financial problems and 41.50% had health problems of one sort or the other. 33% had sleeplessness and 39.40% needed counseling to overcome bad habits. Comparatively fewer number had counseling needs in the family dimension with 32.40% having problems about adjustment with parents and 32.00% having problems about adjustment with siblings. Out of the five different dimensions of counseling needs viz., academic, personality/adjustment, social, family and clinical, most of the students had needs in the Academic dimension (See Table 1) and fewer had counseling needs in Family dimension. More than 50% of the students said that they have a need in all items of Academic dimension except for problems due to medium of instruction which is 38.1% (11.7% most needed; 26.4% somewhat needed). Among the 16 items in the academic dimension 78% of the students had counseling need in memory improvement techniques and 75.9% in effective learning methods. 75.2% reported need help for attention/concentration improvement. Similarly 71.10% reported a need to increase work commitment and 64.10% to increase self-motivation in studies. Regarding the improvement of other aspects of their academics, 67.40% had a counseling need to develop efficient study habits while 65% to understand subject matter. In the Personality/Adjustment dimension, it was found that the highest need is to improve decision making with 70.20% of the students opting for counseling. Increase in self-confidence is listed by 64.10%, need to find meaning in life is by 60.80%, and fear of failure is by 58.7% respectively % of the students had a need in the area of increasing self-control/patience

20 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 11 and 53.30% had problems with anger management. The percentage of the students with counseling need on lethargy is 54.3% and on that of necessity to instill self-discipline is 51.30%. 50% of the students had a need on the ability to be happy and have mood control. Enhancing communication skills is the top need in the dimension of Social needs. In fact, among all other needs this is the most highly prevalent. The students not only had need for counseling in overcoming shyness (65.70%) but also in being assertive (60.10%) % had a need to develop conflict management skills, while 48.20% had problems overcoming infatuations and 46.20% in coping with broken relationships. An important outside influence in this age group is peers and 45.90% indicated they had a need in facing peer pressure. A little less than the half percentile that is, 45.60% seems to need counseling in order to overcome loneliness. Financial problems have more prevalence than other needs in the dimension of Family needs with 39.70%. Prevalence rate of33% is found for homesickness. Compared with other dimensions the needs in this have lesser prevalence. However, 25.10% indicated a need in the area of lack of family support.in the Clinical needs dimension uncontrollable disturbing thoughts have the highest prevalence of 57.40% opting for counseling % of the students had a need in coping with depression out of which for 17.60% denoted counseling is most needed and 32.80% somewhat needed.other psychopathological problems phobias, nightmares and suicidal attempt/ suicidal thoughts are with a prevalence rate of 36.70%, 31.90% and 17.60% respectively. Gender and Unmet Counseling Needs The total number of females in this study are 579 and males are 459. Males are found to have more unmet needs in overcoming infatuations, financial problems and in controlling disturbing thoughts (See Table 2). Females have more unmet counseling needs compared with males in

21 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 12 facing exam stress, gaining self-confidence, find meaning in life, mood control, and improve decision making. In the Academic and Clinical dimension the counseling needs of both genders is more or less similar. In Personality/adjustment needs dimension females have significantly more number of counseling needs than males. Males have significantly more number of counseling needs than females in the dimensions of family needs and social needs (See Table 3). Table 2 Mean Differences between Males and Females on each Counseling Need Needs Gender Mean S.D. t Set relevant Goals Male Female Frame proper Time table Male Female Effective Learning Methods Male Female Memory Improvement Techniques Male Female Attention/Concentration Improvement Male Female Improve Note Taking Skills Male Female Efficient Study Habits Male Female Increase Self-Motivation in studies Male Female Develop Interest in Studies Male Female Coping with Work Pressure Male (Stress/tension) Female Managing Exam Stress Male Female ** Improve Writing Skills Male Female Increase Work Commitment Male.98.76

22 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 13 Coping with Distractions while Studying Female Male Female Problems due to Medium of Instruction Male Female Understanding Subject Matter Male Female Overcome Fear of Failure Male Female Increase Self Confidence Male Female ** Anger Management Male Female Instill Self Discipline Male Female Increase Self Control/patience Male Female Gain Meaning in Life Male Female ** Happiness Mood Control Male Female ** Improve Decision Making Male Female * Lethargy Male Female Enhance Communication Skills Male Female Assertiveness - Ability to say No ; Male Female Compassion Ability to think about Male others Female Respect Self & Others Male Female Conflict Management Male Female Overcome Shyness Male Female Overcome loneliness Male Female

23 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 14 Overcome Infatuations Male Female ** Facing Peer Pressure Male Female Coping with broken relationships Male Female Adjustment with Parents Male Female Adjustment with siblings Male Female Adjustment with other relatives Male Female Homesickness Male Female Family disputes Male Female Lack of Family support Male Female Financial Problems Male Female ** Uncontrollable disturbing thoughts Male Female ** Coping with Depression Male Female Suicidal attempt/ suicidal thoughts Male Female Phobias Intense Fears Male Female Health Problems Male Female Changing Bad Habits Male Female Sleeplessness Male Female Tiredness/weakness Male Female Sleepy Male Female Nightmares Male Female

24 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 15 Note. * p<.05; **p<.01. Table 3 Mean Differences between Male and Female Students in each Dimension Gender N Mean SD t Academic Needs Male Female Personality/Adjustment Needs Male * Female Social Needs Male * Female Family Needs Male ** Female Clinical Needs Male Female Note. * p<.05; **p<.01. Discussion In this study academic related needs had more prevalence. Since there is no taboo reporting on academic problems probably there is higher prevalence in the academic related needs compared with other dimensions. Garg, et al., (2002) found that adolescents are less likely to seek professional help for their emotional problems, so they might have not opted counseling in other need dimensions as readily as on academic needs. However the needs on other dimensions were also found to be highly prevalent and the prevalence rate is in some cases higher than earlier research and in few cases on par with earlier research. The differences might be caused by the

25 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 16 characteristics of the participants, because the sample assessed belonged to professional colleges whose needs are different and specific from students of other non-professional colleges. In this study it is found there are several counseling needs and the need to improve communication skills topped them all. This is because in the present day context soft skills have gained momentum and there is a lot of pressure on the professional college students to perform well in communication skills. Though increasingly more professional colleges have introduced soft skills training programs, several of them are only theory oriented. This huge need indicates that more rigorous, practical oriented training programs need to be introduced. One can deduce from these findings that if the needs to overcome shyness and increase self-confidence are met then the need to improve communications skills will also be addressed to a great extent. So the soft skills programs should incorporate techniques to improve on these areas. On the personality front many students have a need to improve decision making capacities, overcome shyness and increase self-confidence. These results once again remind us that an adolescent is not a child and also not yet an adult; and so requires guidance from elders on many matters since they are not able to take decisions on their own. A little over fifty percent of the sample had a need in the area of increasing self-control/patience and had problems with anger management. Sonia, Jennifer, Maureen, Kevin and Marios (2007) in their study on college students in Mumbai, found that anger management is one of the problems and that cognitions defining resentful anger were positively associated with poor physical health, hostility, and stress. 50% of the students of the study had a need on the ability to be happy and have mood control. In this study prevalence rates of several psychosocial variables are found to be higher than an earlier study which reported 31.2% (Muzammil, et al., 2009). Arun et al., (2009) reported a comparable prevalence rate of 45.8% with psychological problems. A study conducted in 2004

26 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 17 (Nair, et al., 2004) reported 11.2 per cent cases of prevalence of depression among adolescents in pediatric care settings in India. Probably this explains the high prevalence rate of students who seek counseling for depressive symptoms. Chandrashekharaand Reddy, (1998) estimated the prevalence rate of 20.7%for all neurotic disorders. But the weighted prevalence rates for phobias is only 4.2% in their study, unlike the present study which had high prevalence of 36.70% out of which 9.50% said that counseling is most needed to overcome them. Coming to one of the most important areas, 17.60% needed counseling to deal with suicidal attempts/suicidal thoughts out of which 4.30% opted for most needed and 13.30% for somewhat needed. This prevalence rate is higher than the 6% in a study by Arun et al., (2009) who reported suicidal ideas. This high prevalence rate is certainly because of a high need in coping with depression, overcoming loneliness and failures in life. Once these areas are taken care of then the prevalence rate in suicidal thoughts can go down. It is pointed out by other researchers that the suicide trend is increasing at alarming pace. Out of the five different dimensions of needs viz., academic, personality/adjustment, social, family and clinical, most of the students had counseling needs in the Academic dimension and fewer had counseling needs in Family dimension. More than half of the professional college students said they need help to understand subject matter. This indicates that the students of the professional colleges have difficulty in understanding the subject matter itself. This calls for immediate attention suggesting the teaching methods per se are to be upgraded. In the family dimension, Arun et al., (2009) reported that 24.4% students found relationship with parents stressful while 15.4% found peer relationship stressful. The rates are little lower than the prevalence rates in this study on late adolescents.

27 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 18 Significant gender differences in the counseling needs of the professional college students are found as in several other studies. Males have more needs in overcoming infatuations, financial problems and in controlling disturbing thoughts. Females have more counseling needs in facing exam stress, gaining self-confidence, find meaning in life, mood control, and improve decision making. Gender differences were reported by earlier researchers in the type of student counseling needs (e.g., Bishop et al., 1998; Murphy & Archer, 1996), level of stress, suicidal ideation and suicidal attempts (e.g., Sharma et al., 2008) and prevalence of emotional problems. Conclusions The professional college students of the study reported their problems/needs to a great extent. For some, counseling is somewhat needed on a particular item and for few others it is most needed. This suggests that adolescent students not only have several needs in the dimensions of academic, personality/adjustment, social, family and clinical; but also are actively seeking counseling to overcome them. This study is limited to the counseling needs of professional college students only. Future studies can be carried out to study the counseling needs of non-professional college students to understand the needs of the students of all disciplines during the adolescent years. Most of the colleges in the developing world, including professional colleges, do not have counseling services in their educational institutions. So it is extremely important to provide counseling and group education to respond to these needs. Lack of on campus counseling psychologists who cater to the adolescent needs is a glaring void. The Government should set an example in this regard by recruiting counseling psychologists in all the government institutions and government aided institutions so that the private institutions will emulate, reaching out to the 50.40% of the students with a counseling need to cope with depression, 17.60% of students with suicidal thoughts/attempts and even higher prevalence rates on several needs.

28 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 19 This study identified few specific needs of professional college students unlike other studies on counseling needs. Two of the specific needs seem to be improving communication skills and understanding subject matter. In this age of globalization and rapid increase in technologies, the subject matter of professional courses is becoming vast as well as advanced. Sometimes the subject matter which the faculty themselves have not studied during their student days, is being introduced in the syllabi. Moreover, the old practice of conducting yearly final exams has been changed to Semester system in all the professional colleges producing additional stress. Apart from mastering the various professional courses, due to the demands of globalization every student is expected to communicate fluently in English and be sociable. Special training and counseling programs have to be planned for the students of professional colleges that aim to address these needs. Counseling and prevention programs for professional college students should focus more on academic issues apart from psychosocial and family issues and have to be tailored to meet the different needs of female and male students. References Aggarwal, S., Prabhu, H.R.A., Anand, A., & Kotwal, A. (2007). Stressful life events among adolescents: The development of a new measure. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 49, Arun, P., & Chavan, B.S. (2009).Stress and suicidal ideas in adolescent students in Chandigarh. Indian Journal of medical Science, 63, Bishop, J., Bauer, K., &Becker, E. (1998). A survey of counseling needs of male and female college students. Journal of College Student Development, 39, Carney, C.G., & Barak, A. (1976).A survey of student needs and student services. Journal of College Student Personnel, 17,

29 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 20 Carson, D.K., Chowdhury, A., Perry, C.K., & Pati, C. (1999). Family Characteristics and Adolescent Competence in India: Investigation of Youth in Southern Orissa. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(2), Chandrashekhar, C.R., & Reddy, M.V. (1998). Prevalence of mental and behavioural disorders in India: A meta-analysis. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 40, Gallagher, R. P., Galvin, A., & Kelleher, K. (1992). The personal, career, and learning skills needs of college students. Journal of College Student Development, 33, Garg, B.S., Narula, N., & Dhabarde, S. (2002). Emotional problems of adolescents attending GOPD. Antiseptic, 99(5), Gupta, D., & Gupta, N. (2012). Higher Education in India: Structure, Statistics and Challenges. Journal of Education and Practice, 3(2), Gururaj, G., & Isaac, M.K. (2001).Epidemiology of Suicides in Bangalore. Bangalore: National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences. Kaul, S. (2006). Higher Education in India: seizing the opportunity, ICRIER,Working paper no. 179, Kumar, P.E.I., & Panchanatham, P. (2010).A study on impact of rural college students in e-learning (Nagapattinam District, Tamilnadu-India), Perspectives of Innovations, Economics & Business, 4(2). Mayya, S., & Roff, S. (2004). Students' Perceptions of Educational Environment: A Comparison of Academic Achievers and Under-Achievers at Kasturba medical College, India. Education for Health: Change in Learning & Practice, 17(3), Murphy, M. C., & Archer, J. (1996). Stressors on the college campus: A comparison of Journal of College Student Development, 37,

30 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 21 Muzammil, K., Kishore, S., & Semwal, J. (2009).Prevalence of psychosocial problems among adolescents in district Dehradun, Uttarakhand. Indian Journal of Public Health, 53(1), Nair, M., Paul, M., & Ramany, J. (2004).Prevalence of depression among adolescents. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 71(6), Nandi, D.N., Mukherjee, S.P., Banerjee, G., Ghosh, A., Boral, C.G., Chowdury, A. & Bose, J. (1979) Is suicide preventable by restricting the availability of lethal agents? A rural survey of West Bengal.Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 21, National Crime Records Bureau (1999).Accidental Deaths and Suicides in India. New Delhi: GOI.Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., & Feldman, R.D. (1998).Human development (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Ponnudurai, R. (1996). Suicide in India: A review. Indian Journal of Psychological medicine, 19, Ramya, N., & Parthasarathy, R. (2009). A study on coping patterns of junior college students. Indian Journal of Psychological medicine, 31, Rustagi, N., Taneja, D.K., Mishra, P., & Ingle, G.K. (2011). Cardiovascular Risk Behavior among Students of a Medical College in Delhi. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 36(1), Sharma, R., Grover, V.L., & Chaturvedi, S. (2008). Suicidal behavior amongst adolescent students in south Delhi. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 50, Sonia, S., Jennifer, F., Maureen, A., Kevin, L., & Marios, A. (2007). Angry thoughts predict stress & health among college students in Mumbai, India. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 31(4),

31 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 22 Suneetha, K. (2011). Prevalence of unmet counseling needs of female and male professional college students. Unpublished project report submitted to ICSSR: M.V.G.R. College of Engineering. Supe, A.N. (1998). A study of stress in medical students at Seth G.S. Medical College.Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, 44, 1-6 Taj, H. (1999). School academic excellence: A product of individual and situational variables. Indian Psychological Review, 52(1), Trivedi, J.K., Srivastava, R.K. &Tandon, R. (2005.) Suicide: An Indian perspective. Journal of the Indian medical Association, 103, University Grants Commission, (2012). Higher education in India at a glance. New Delhi: UGC. Verma, S., Sharma, D., & Larson, R.W. (2002). School stress in India: Effects on time and daily emotions. International Journal of Behavior Development, 26(6), Vijaykumar, L. & Rajkumar, S. (1999) Are risk factors for suicide universal? A case-control study in India. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 99, Vijaykumar, L. (2007). Suicide and its prevention: The urgent need in India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 49, Witchel, R. l. (1991).The impact of dysfunctional families on college students' development. In R. I. Witchel (Ed.) Dealing with students from dysfunctional families (New Directions for Student Services no. 54, pp. 5-17). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

32 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 23 Input Processing of Turkish Learners of English from Beginner and Advanced Level of Proficiency Eda Duruk Pamukkale University, Turkey Fatma Hülya Özcan Anadolu University, Turkey Abstract English L1 acquirers learning Romance Languages have been claimed to process the first noun or pronoun of a sentence as the agent. However, because most of the evidence is based on learners with English as an L1, it is not clearly known whether this is due to a universal strategy or is a result of L1 transfer. According to one model of input processing (VanPatten, 2007), L2 learners would initially assign agent position to the first noun and object position to the second noun (First Noun Principle) or it might be that the L1 parser is transferred into the L2 input processing procedures (L1 Transfer Principle). The present study aims to address whether the L1 parsing procedures are transferred or whether there is a universal First Noun Principle. L1 Turkish speakers learning English as an L2 enrolled in beginning (n=48) and advanced (n=48) English classes were asked to interpret English sentences which included contextual cues or neutral contexts preceding the target clause. All participants completed two tasks: an impromptu discussion and a data-elicitation task. In order to analyze the data, the frequency of the items was calculated and chi-square test was applied for each independent variable. The results indicated that learners from beginner proficiency level interpreted subjects differently in different input conditions whereas the subject identification was not different for learners from advanced level of proficiency. Keywords: First noun principle, input processing, age, word order.

33 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 24 Introduction Second language acquisition is an independent nonapplied discipline whose aim is to explain how second languages are learned (Gass & Schachter, 1989). It has been claimed that the goal of second language acquisition research is to understand how a linguistic system develops in a learner's head. A researcher in second language acquisition identifies a phenomenon, examines the variables involved, conducts research (or theorizes about the phenomenon), and eventually draws a conclusion about the phenomenon. In this view, second language acquisition is divorced of pedagogical interests. VanPatten noted that "pedagogy must reflect an understanding of (a) theory of second language acquisition and pedagogical principles and practices should be firmly grounded in theory and research" (1996, p.1). On the other hand, other researchers (i.e.; Lee, 2003) could argue that second language acquisition research is as important as the pedagogical issues motivating it. According to them, the matters that directly affect teachers and learners in classrooms should be researched. Research and theorizing should be at the service of pedagogy and not divorced from it. Processing instruction, which links second language acquisition theory and research, is a type of grammar instruction whose aim is to affect the ways in which learners attend to input data. It is input-based and constant with both general second language acquisition theory and communicative language teaching. It was first described in VanPatten (1984) and has since been described, discussed and researched in a number of studies (Cadierno, 1992,1995; Cheng, 1995; Lee & VanPatten, 1995; VanPatten, 1993; VanPatten & Cadierno, 1993; VanPatten & Oikkenon, 1996; VanPatten & Sanz, 1995). Bearing these issues in mind, native speakers of Turkish acquiring English as a foreign language (EFL) rely on word order to assign the grammatical roles of subject and object to words in a

34 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 25 sentence like speakers of any language would do. One of the accounts for this tendency is the psycholinguistic strategy which causes L2 learners to assign the roles of subject or agent to the first noun encountered in a target sentence (Lee, 1987; LoCoco, 1987; VanPatten, 1984; VanPatten and Houston, 1998). This process can yield non-nativelike interpretations and delay the acquisition of object pronouns because of the variable word order characteristic of Turkish. For example, both of the following Turkish sentences are grammatical, having the same meaning, "Ayşe bought her the book": (1) Ayşe kitabı ona aldı Ayşe-Subj IO-book+ case marker DO-pronoun+case marker+female verb-past tense marker (2) ona kitabı Ayşe aldı DO-pronoun+case marker+female IO-book+ case marker Ayşe-Subj verb-past tense marker Any language learner whose native language is not Turkish can misinterpret (2) as She bought the book by assigning the grammatical role of subject to the direct object pronoun ona her because of the psycholinguistic strategy discussed earlier. The present study aims to investigate the Contextual Constraint Principle which predicts that learners can rely less on the First Noun Principle if preceding context constrains the possible interpretation of a clause or sentence. Input and Processing Instruction There is a consensus among second language researchers that input is an essential component of second language acquisition. Learners use input in order to construct a mental representation of the grammar that they are acquiring. However, there is also consensus that not all of input is attended to. Learners filter the input, processing it so that only a reduced subset of the input called intake is made available for accommodation by the developing system (Krashen, 1985; VanPatten, 1996). Although different researchers hold different perspectives on second language

35 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 26 acquisition, all confirm that meaningful input is essential to second language acquisition (Krashen, 1985; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; VanPatten, 1996). According to them learners must be exposed to samples of language that are used to communicate information. That assumption led researchers to reanalyze traditional approaches to grammar instruction. Therefore, some researchers (e.g., Long, 1983; VanPatten, 1996) questioned the meaning-bearing input in output practice by depending on the fact that meaning-bearing input is one of the essential building blocks of acquisition. They supported processing instruction, which is an input-based approach to focus on form. In such activities, learners are pushed to attend to properties of the language during which they hear or see language that expresses some meaning. These activities contain purposefully manipulated sentences and discourse that carry meaning. Input Processing VanPatten (1996) states that, because instruction can make certain grammatical forms more salient in the input, grammar instruction has a positive role in the acquisition process. His model includes three stages; input and intake, intake and the developing system, and the developing system and output. VanPatten claims that during input processing, which covers the first stage- input and intake, learners process input as they attempt to comprehend the message carried in it and use the input to make form-meaning connections. During that process they filter the input, reducing it and having a new entity called 'intake'. Next stage covers the way learners incorporate a grammatical form or structure into the mental picture of the language they are creating. Moreover, it includes the way in which the incorporation of a form or structure can cause a ripple effect and make other things change without the learner knowing (VanPatten, 2003). The final stage is responsible for language production.

36 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 27 This model includes principles interacting in complex ways in working memory (based on VanPatten, 2007): P1. The Primacy of Content Words Principle: Learners process content words in the input before anything else. a. The Lexical Preference Principle: Learners will process lexical items for meaning before grammatical forms when both encode the same semantic information. a. (Revised) Lexical Preference Principle: If grammatical forms express a meaning that can also be encoded lexically (i.e., that grammatical marker is redundant), then learners will not initially process those grammatical forms until they have lexical forms to which they can match them. b. The Preference for Nonredundancy Principle: Learners are more likely to process nonredundant meaningful grammatical markers before they process redundant meaningful markers. c. The Meaning before Nonmeaning Principle: Learners are more likely to process meaningful grammatical markers before nonmeaningful grammatical markers. P2. The First Noun Principle: Learners tend to process the first noun or pronoun they encounter in a sentence as the subject. a. The Event Probability Principle: Learners may rely on event probabilities, where possible, instead of the First Noun Principle to interpret sentences. b. The Lexical Semantics Principle: Learners may rely on lexical semantics, where possible, instead of the First Noun Principle (or an Ll parsing procedure) to interpret sentences. c. The Contextual Constraint Principle: Learners may rely less on the First Noun Principle (or Ll transfer) if preceding context constrains the possible interpretation of a clause or sentence. P3. The Sentence Location Principle: Learners tend to process items in sentence initial position before those in final position and those in medial position.

37 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 28 The first principle is concerned with the processing of morphological form as well as functional categories like articles. The third principle suggests that sentence initial and sentence final positions are cognitively more salient than other constituents in a sentence. The second principle, the third sub-principle of which is the concern of the present study, deals with word order. Research on L2 input processing demonstrated that context may affect how learners parse sentences. VanPatten (2007) gives the following two sentences as examples: (4a) John is in the hospital because Mary attacked him. (4b) John told his friends that Mary attacked him. In Spanish, the embedded clause can either be SOV (Maria lo ataco) or OVS (lo ataco Maria). If the First Noun Principle was conducted, the OVS structure could be misinterpreted as "he attacked Mary." However, if the preceding context is "John is in the hospital" a misinterpretation is less likely because why would John be in the hospital if he attacked Mary? Therefore, one interprets that he's in the hospital as the result of an injury, so Mary must have attacked him. If the preceding context is a neutral as in "John told his friends" there is nothing to constrain interpretation of the clause that follows it: John could equally tell his friends that he attacked Mary or that Mary attacked him. Thus, the effects of context form 'The Contextual Constraint Principle'. Empirical Studies and the Hypotheses tested Different studies with different languages have been studied so far. VanPatten and Cadierno (1993) tried to change the learner's dependence on the first-noun strategy when processing input containing Spanish clitic object pronouns. Spanish, having flexible word order, allow different structure possibilities such as SVO, SOV, OVS, and OV. The subject can precede or follow the

38 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 29 verb. By using the first-noun strategy, English speakers can conclude that the first noun or pronoun is the subject of the sentence. This makes them misinterpret the direct object as the subject. In another study, VanPatten and Sanz (1995) used an interpretation task, a sentence-level task, a structured question-answer task, and a video narration task to compare an input processing group with a control group. They found that the former group significantly improved on the interpretation task, while the latter one didn't. The input processing group also improved their accuracy on the written tasks and on the sentence completion test. However, on the oral video narration task, no significant difference was found. Lots of different studies have been conducted following these studies. Some aimed to replicate the study of VanPatten and Cadierno (1993) and found two main problems about internal validity: 1. different type and amount of explicit grammar instruction, and 2. difference in the type of practice (DeKeyser & Sokalski, 1996). Cantürk (2001) also administered interpretation and production tasks to the input processing group and traditional instruction group. This study suggested that positive effects of processing instruction are durable on both interpretation and production tasks. However, there was no significant difference between the two instruction groups. Finally, Lee (2003) conducted a research on the acquisition of Spanish object pronouns and asserted that the default processing strategy based on word order is pervasive into intermediate levels of learning and is detrimental to the acquisition of that feature of the language. His suggestions implied that the processing of word order is closely related to certain proficiency level. The present study differs from the previous ones in that it limits its scope to the Contextual Constraint Principle discussed earlier. The principle predicts that if there are some preceding

39 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 30 contextual cues, misinterpretation is less likely. Thus, the hypotheses tested in the present study are formulated as follows: H1: Contextual cues preceding the target clause will help L2 learners interpret most of the subjects in a set of sentences correctly. H2: L2 learners will misinterpret most of the subjects in a set of sentences when the clause preceding the target one is neutral in terms of its context. Participants Method Depending on convenience sampling, learners from two different beginner (n=48) and advanced (n=48) English classes participated in the current study as part of their regular class period. Their ages range from 18 to 21. They were identified as beginner or advanced level learners of English after the implementation of the placement exam. The exam tested all language skills and the proficiency level of the learners was decided according to their scores. All participants (n=96) were native speakers of Turkish. There were no heritage speakers of English who participated. All were enrolled in an intensive English course at the university level intended for individuals who had three years or more of high school English. Table 1 The distribution of the participants in the study Total Number: 96 Group A Group B Beginner Level Advanced Level Data Collection Participation in the present study was voluntary. Each of the two different classes was further divided into two main groups. The two groups will be referred to as Group A and Group B. Each group consisted of an equal number of participants (N=24). Table 1 shows the groups.

40 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 31 All participants, regardless of which group they were in, received the same data-elicitation procedures. The only difference between the two groups was that Group A received input consisting of English sentences with contextual cues preceding the target clause, whereas Group B received input consisting of English sentences containing neutral preceding context (the difference in input between the two groups will be further explained below). All participants completed the following two tasks: (1) an impromptu discussion, in English, regarding the characters from the popular Turkish TV series, Yaprak Dökümü; and (2) a dataelicitation task. Impromptu Discussion The impromptu discussion regarding Yaprak Dökümü (a Turkish TV series) was intended to activate the schemata, i.e. topic familiarity, of the participants regarding the different characters in the story. Yaprak Dökümü was chosen because of its popularity and longevity within Turkish culture, and assumed that everyone would be familiar with it. The discussion was conducted in English in order to ensure its comprehensibility. During the discussion in each of the groups, participants had to name as many characters as possible from the story, in addition to as many adjectives as possible describing each character. The researcher wrote the names of the characters, accompanied by their respective adjectives, on the board. When the discussion ended, the researcher erased the information before going on to the following task. The ultimate objective of the impromptu discussion was to ensure that target sentences in the data-elicitation task would be reliable which were coded for + topic familiarity. Data-elicitation task Data elicitation began after all participants had completed the impromptu discussion. First, each of the verbs to be used in the task was reflected to the learners by means of a projector, in order to

41 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 32 ensure there would be no unfamiliar vocabulary in the task. When learners, especially at the beginner level, encountered unfamiliar vocabulary, visual materials helped the researcher to make the learners be familiarized with the target vocabulary. Second, a projector was used to provide each group with different sets of input sentences, one sentence at a time. Participants were instructed to read the sentence and then respond to the corresponding prompt on the answer sheet. Each sentence was projected on the overhead for six seconds (VanPatten, B. & Houston, T., 1998) before moving on to the next sentence. The researcher kept time using a watch. The target sentences for each group were as follows; the set of input for each group included ten sentences, each of which consisted of scenarios regarding characters from Yaprak Dökümü. Group A received the set of English sentences with contextual cues preceding the target clause, while Group B received the same amount of input consisting of English sentences containing neutral preceding context. Utilizing the methods of VanPatten and Houston (1998), a fill-in-the-blank procedure (see Appendix A for the target input sentences) was adapted. The aim of the task was to investigate whether Turkish learners of English would process the first noun directly as the subject as proposed by the First Noun Principle mentioned earlier. An example of a target input sentence is shown in (1a), and the corresponding prompt on the participant s answer sheet in (1b): (1a) Şevket doesn t improve himself in his job, but Sedef does, and at times she criticizes him. (1b) criticizes. Each of the input sentences in the present study consisted of transitive verbs, i.e. every verb required a subject and an object. All participants received the same answer sheet. Thus, Group A and Group B both completed the fill-in-the-blank task regarding the Turkish series, Yaprak Dökümü. All participants were encouraged to use the proper names given in the task.

42 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 33 Data Analysis If the learner interpreted the target subject accurately, (s)he got 1 point; if (s)he did not, no point was given. Therefore, if a student fills in all 10 blanks correctly, s/he gets 10 points overall. When each group is considered, the highest score for one item was 48 (48 participants 1 point). Items that were not responded to by the participant, or, that had ambiguous responses, were excluded from data analysis. For the fill-in-the-blank task, if the learner responded with English pronouns, such as She criticizes him, instead of full noun phrases, their response was not included in the analysis, because other similar responses, such as He criticizes him, would yield an ambiguous interpretation of the data. As mentioned earlier, participants were told to use the proper names provided in the target sentences. In order to analyze the data, the frequency of the items was calculated and chi-square test was applied for each independent variable. The dependent variable of the study is the correct subject interpretation; whereas, the independent variables are the proficiency level and the two different input conditions. Results and Discussion Table 2 Overall and group-specific frequency of correct subject interpretation Groups Group A Group B Percentage / Raw scores Percentage / Raw scores Beginner Level 83,3% 20 50% 12 Advanced Level 100% % 24 Total Raw Scores: 80 (out of 96) 91,6% 44 75% 36 Percentage: 83,3% As can be seen in Table 2, the percentages of beginner level students within each group differ from each other, group A and group B having 83, 3% and 50%, respectively. Thus, each group performed

43 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 34 differently under each input condition. Hence, for these students, contextual cues that preceded the target clause yielded results that were different than the condition in which neutral contexts were provided. The fact that Group A (with contextual cues) performed differently when compared to Group B (with neutral context) under each input condition indicated that the existence of a contextual cue in a sentence has an effect on how the participants from lower proficiency level interpret the subject while processing the target sentences. Thus, it can be concluded that the strong effects of the first noun principle suggested by VanPatten (1998) can be overridden by the context. When the overall percentage of beginner level students is taken into account, the results revealed that they identified more than half of the subjects in the target clauses correctly (66, 6%). This high percentage was obtained because contextual cues in Group A increased the percentage. Table 3 Chi square tests for each independent variable across both groups of participants Sig. df *Beginner prof. level - Input condition Advanced prof. level - Input condition * Achieved level of significance (p<.001) The chi-square analysis, indicated in Table 3, revealed that, of the two different proficiency levels and the two different input conditions, beginner proficiency level within the input conditions had a significant main effect on the dependent variable (p<.001). The participants from beginner proficiency level had higher percentage of correct subject interpretation when contextual cues preceded the target clause. On the other hand, when neutral contexts were provided the percentage of correct identification decreased.

44 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 35 With respect to the participants from advanced proficiency level, contextual cues that preceded the target clause yielded results that were not significantly different than those of the neutral contexts. Thus, those participants in Group A (with contextual cues) performed the same as the ones in Group B (with neutral contexts) under each of the experimental conditions, indicating that the presence or absence of contextual cues in the sentence had no effect on how the two groups behaved under equal conditions. Depending on the results of beginner level students, the first hypothesis- contextual cues preceding the target clause will help L2 learners interpret most of the subject correctly, is confirmed (83, 3%). Similarly, the second hypothesis- L2 learners will misinterpret most of the subject when the clause preceding the target one is neutral in terms of its context, is partially verified because half of the responses of Group B were not accurate (50%). The significant difference between the two groups can be because of the fact that students from lower proficiency level try to grasp every detail, in a much effortful way to understand a sentence. Given that, if such students are provided with contextual cues, it is highly probable that they will also pay attention to these cues in order to process the input they have received. With respect to advanced level students, it can be seen in Table 2 that the frequencies of each group are just the same. The percentage of both group A and group B was 100%. Thus, each group performed in the same way under each input condition. Therefore, for these students, contextual cues that preceded the target clause did not affect the results when compared to the condition in which neutral contexts were provided. The fact that Group A (with contextual cues) and Group B (with neutral context) performed in the same way under each input condition indicated that the existence or absence of a contextual cue in a sentence does not influence how the participants from advanced proficiency level interpret the

45 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 36 subject while processing the target sentences. As a result, it can be concluded that the effects of the first noun principle suggested by VanPatten (2007) does not appeal to students from higher proficiency level. When the overall frequency of advanced level students is taken into account, the results revealed that they identified all of the subjects in the target clauses correctly (100%). As a consequence, the first hypothesis- contextual cues preceding the target clause will help L2 learners interpret most of the subject correctly, is confirmed for advanced level students. However, the second hypothesis- L2 learners will misinterpret most of the subject when the clause preceding the target one is neutral in terms of its context, is disconfirmed because all of the responses were accurate. The same responses of the two groups can be due to the fact that students from advanced proficiency level do not depend on every detail, responding automatically by not giving much effort to understand a sentence. Thus, they will probably not differentiate a sentence whether containing a contextual cue or neutral context. Their higher proficiency level will also help them process the input they have received accurately by not paying attention to the context. Conclusion VanPatten and Houston (1998) concluded that the presence of context makes a difference in the interpretation of a sentence. On the other hand, they also noted that future research should investigate if such an assertion holds for different languages. The present study confirms that contextual cues preceding the target clause help L2 learners interpret the subject of a sentence correctly. In addition, it reveals that when such cues do not exist, L2 learners from lower proficiency level are under the influence of the First Noun Principle. Furthermore, the study suggests that such factors are not necessarily competing with each other when students from higher

46 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 37 proficiency levels are concerned. This conforms to VanPatten s (2007) assertion that the principles and sub-principles of IP theory may work together, by either interacting or overriding each other. Thus, the present study confirms findings from previous research factors affecting the interpretation of the received input in target sentences among L2 learners. Also, the validity of the psycholinguistic processing strategy discussed in the literature review is supported. Limitation of the Study As discussed earlier, in order to activate learners schemata and make them gain topic familiarity, the researcher tried to conduct a discussion in English with beginner learners. However, because of their limited language proficiency, the session was very limited when compared to the other group from advanced proficiency level. Suggestions for Further Studies Further studies are needed to better understand the conditions supporting the Contextual Constraint Principle; it may be that not merely preceding context overrides the First Noun Principle, but rather, the mere presence of contextual cues overrides it. References Cadierno, T. (1992). Explicit instruction in grammar: a comparison of input based and output based instruction in second language acquisition. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Cadierno, T. (1995). Formal Instruction from a Processing Perspective: An Investigation into the Spanish Past Tense, The Modern Language Journal, 79: Cantürk, B. (2001). Explicit Grammar Instruction: A Comparison of Comprehension-based and Production-based Instruction for EFL Learners, T.C. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları: No Yabancı Diller Yüksekokulu Yayınları: No. 01: Eskişehir Cheng, A. (1995). Grammar instruction and input processing: The acquisition of Spanish ser and estar. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

47 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 38 DeKeyser, R.M. & Sokalski. (1996). The Differential Role of Comprehension and Production Practice, Language Learning, 46/4: Gass, S. M. & Schachter, J. (Eds.). (1989). Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis. London: Longman. Larsen-Freeman, D. & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. London: Longman. Lee, J. F. (1987). Morphological factors influencing pronominal reference assignment by learners of Spanish, Studies in Spanish ( ). Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Lee, J. F. & VanPatten, B. (1995). Making Communicative Language Teaching Happen. New York: McGraw-Hill. Lee, J. F. (2003). Cognitive and Linguistic Perspectives on the Acquisition of Object Pronouns in Spanish as a Second Language. In Barbara Lafford and Rafael Salaberry (Eds.), The Acquisition of Spanish: The State of the Science. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. LoCoco, V. (1987). Learner comprehension of oral and written sentences in German and Spanish: The importance of word order. A research perspective ( ). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House. Long, M. H. (1983). Native speaker/non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics, 4, Paulston, C. B. (1972). Structural pattern drills. Teaching English as a second language. New York: McGraw-Hill. VanPatten, B. (1984). Learner comprehension of clitic object pronouns in Spanish. Hispanic Linguistics, 1, VanPatten, B. (1996). Input Processing and Grammar Instruction in Second Language Acqquisition. Norwood, N. J: Ablex. VanPatten, B. (2003). From input to Output: A Teacher's Guide to Second Language Acquisition. Boston: McGraw Hill. VanPatten, B. (Eds.). (2007). Theories in second language acquisition, An introduction. Mahwah, New Jersey.

48 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 39 VanPatten, B. & Cadierno, T. (1993). Explicit Instruction and Input Processing, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15: VanPatten, B. & Houston, T. (1998). Contextual effects in processing L2 input sentences. Spanish Applied Linguistics, 1 (2), VanPatten, B. & Oikkenon, S. (1996). Explanation versus Structured Input in Processing Instruction, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18: VanPatten, B. & Sanz, C. (1995). From input to output: Processing instruction and communicative tasks. Second Language Acquisition and Pedagogy. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Appendix A Sentences with contextual cues for Group A: 1. Ferhunde feels like a victim when Şevket insults her. 2. Fikret was so happy because Tahsin bought her a present. 3. Şevket doesn t improve himself in his job, but Sedef does, and at times she criticizes him. 4. Oğuz lost his job, so Leyla gave him some money. 5. Hayriye started to cry when Ali Rıza told her bad news. 6. Necla was ill, so Cem brought her to hospital. 7. Fikret became sad when Cevriye shouted at her. 8. Ayşe felt excited as Leyla brought a dog. 9. Ali Rıza was shocked when Ferhunde laughed at him. 10. Hayriye wanted to change her house, so Cem found a new house. Sentences with neutral context for Group B: 1. Ferhunde noticed that Şevket was insulting her. 2. Fikret understood that Tahsin bought her a present. 3. Şevket knows that sometimes Sedef criticizes him. 4. Oğuz told his friends that Leyla gave him some money.

49 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Hayriye realized that Ali Rıza was going to tell her bad news. 6. Necla told her family that Cem brought her to hospital. 7. Fikret knew that Cevriye would shout at her. 8. Ayşe guessed that Leyla would bring a dog. 9. Ali Rıza thought that Ferhunde laughed at himself. 10. Hayriye heard that Cem found a new house.

50 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 41 The Relationship between Teacher s Perceived Organizational Culture of School and their Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction Javad Armani Saribagloo Firouzeh Sepahrian Azar Hojjat Mahmoudi University of Tebriz, Iran Urmia University, Iran Urmia University, Iran mj.amani@gmail.com f_sepehrian@yahoo.com axar_su2@yahoo.com Abstract This research aimed at studying the relationship between teachers' perceived organizational culture of school and their basic psychological needs satisfaction (relatedness, competence, and autonomy) in Urmia, Iran, based on Hofstede s cultural dimensions (masculinity/ femininity, individualism/ collectivism, uncertainty avoidance and power distance). To this end, 187 high school teachers were randomly selected and were asked to answer Hofstede cultural dimension and basic psychological needs scale. The results of canonical correlation analysis revealed that there is a significantly negative relationship between Hofstede cultural dimensions and the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. In general, it can be concluded that if the organizational culture of the school does not support teachers' autonomy, the sense of competence will be low among these teachers. Keywords: Basic psychological needs, Hofstede cultural dimensions, organizational culture, self-determination.

51 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 42 Introduction Since McGregor used Maslow s hierarchical theory of needs for the first time in organizational management and conduct, various studies have investigated the relationship between human needs and occupational perceptions and motivations. One reason for the great use of this concept in such studies was that the satisfaction of these needs led to positive work outcomes, and their dissatisfaction led to negative outcomes. There are two approaches in defining the concept of needs. The former approach considers needs as an individual s desires, wishes, and conscious motives. In this approach, needs are considered as adoptive individual differences which can be evaluated and used to directly predict work outcomes such as job satisfaction, motivation, and absence in job (Baard, Deci & Ryan, 2004). The latter considers needs as necessities (physically or psychologically) which are necessary for living, growth and unity of the individual sidentity (Ryan, Sheldon, Kasser & Deci, 1996). According to this approach, needs exist in all individuals naturally rather than adoptively. Self-determination theory (SDT) has adopted the second approach to human needs. Self- determination theory, as a macro level theory, consists of five mini theories and each mini theory explains different aspects of motivation, behavior, well-being and psychological adjustment of human beings. In general, SDT describes and explains the factors and processes that facilitate or inhibit self actualization in mankind. The basic elements of self-determination theory consist of different types of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and a set of basic psychological needs that underlies motivation. One of these mini theories is basic psychological needs theory (Gunnell et al, 2014). These three needs are innate in all human beings and include the need for relatedness, competence, and autonomy (Evans et al, 2013). Need for relatedness refers to the individual's tendency for the feeling of relation and connection with others; competence refers to the

52 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 43 individual's tendency for the feeling of effectiveness in reaching valuable and useful results, and autonomy refers to the individual's tendency to begin and regulate his behaviors (Carreira, 2011). According to self-determination theory, these three needs can be satisfied by individuals involvement in various types of behavior, which are different among individuals as well as cultures. Regardless of the ways, the important point is that the satisfaction of these needs is essential for the healthy growth and psychological well-being of all individuals in any culture (Sorebo, Halvari, Gulli & Kristiansen, 2009). If basic psychological needs get satisfied, feelings of self-confidence and self-value will be formed in individuals. However, in case of prevention and dissatisfaction of these needs, the individual will have a frail, negative, strange, and critical understanding of himself. These three psychological needs are closely relate to each other. Having friendly and supportive relations makes individuals feel autonomous in choosing activities. The sense of autonomy increases the sense of effectiveness and competence and this in turn leads to an increase in the sense of connectivity to the group (Ghalavandi, Amani Sari Bagloo & Babai, 2012). Researches done in the context of organizational behavior indicate that the satisfaction of these needs has a positive relationship with work productivity. These studies show that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs has relationship with personnel s job involvement, satisfaction, commitment, self-respect, adaptation, more performance and less job stress and attrition (Deci, Ryan, Gagne, Leone, Usunov, & Kornazheva, 2001; Baard, Deci & Ryan, 2004; Greguras, Diefendorff, 2009; Lam & Gurland, 2008). Considering the significance of psychological needs, both theoretically and empirically, in prediction of work outcomes, they should be considered in educational organizations like schools. Previous researches have considered only the personnel of non-educational and trade organizations and there is a gap in the literature about the personnel of educational organizations such as teachers. Considering teachers importance and their vital role

53 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 44 in facilitating students learning in these organizations, the need to conduct a research in this area is felt necessary. According to self-determination theory, communities and social contexts in which the individual has freedom of action cause the satisfaction of basic psychological needs (Reeve, 2009) while external control prevents it (Gagne, Ryan, Bargmann, 2003). Ghalavandi, Amani and Babai (2012) and Sadeghi, Amani and Mahmudi (2013) have categorized autonomy supportive environments into two dimensions; the first dimension provides those aspects of environment with which the individual deals directly, such as the degree to which a manager supports his personnel in an organization, and the second dimension is those aspects which indirectly affect individual s behavior. Organizational culture is one of the aspects of the environment which can invisibly affect the satisfaction of these needs. This means when the culture of an organization supports personnel autonomy, it facilitates the satisfaction of basic psychological needs while acting as a controller prevents it. So far, studies regarding autonomy supportive environments have taken its direct aspect into consideration and they have ignored indirect aspects such as organizational culture. Organizational culture describes one part of the internal environment of the organization which is in fact a combination of commitment, beliefs and mutual values among members of the organization and is used to guide the personnel in fulfilling their tasks. In fact, organizational culture is a potential system of social supervision, which opposes the official or formal supervision system. Social supervision system is the same as informal system. It involves informal actions, feelings, group norms and values approved by the people in the organization (Sadeghi et al, 2013). The main and fundamental feature of organizational culture is its high stability; it is very resistant against the effects of environments and seldom undergoes changes. This feature causes the culture

54 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 45 to have a strong, extensive and to some extent equal effect on different groups of students entering a school (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). To understand the organizational culture, certain models, patterns, and frame works have been presented by theorists. For instance, Schein (2010) believes that organizational culture is formed of two layers, visible and invisible. The visible layer refers to clothing, behaviors, rules, stories, legends, language and rituals, while the invisible one refers to members mutual values, norms, beliefs and assumptions in an organization (Sadeghi et al, 2013). Likewise, Hofstede considers culture with four dimensions of masculinity/ femininity, individualism/ collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance (Hofstede et al. 2010). Hofstede s cultural dimensions are one of the most important patterns which have been taken into consideration by most researchers of organizational culture (Srite, Thatcher, Galy, 2008; Amani, Lavasani, Ejei & Khezriazar, 2011). Masculinity / femininity refers to the degree of distinction between sexes in the society or organization. Individualism/ collectivism refers to the typical relationship between the individual and groups in a certain society. Uncertainty avoidance refers to how individuals encounter unknown aspects of the future and the degree to which members of a culture feel the danger caused by vague and unknown situations. Power distance also refers to the degree to which less powerful members of institutes and organizations (e.g. families) accept and expect the power to be shared unevenly (Hofstede et al, 2010). According to Hofstede s cultural dimension, the control rate of an existing culture over personnel s innovation and freedom of action in an organization can have a negative effect on the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. The existence of many rules and circulars in organizations with a high power distance and uncertainty avoidance limits individuals` freedom (Srite, 2000). The emphasis on having harmony with the group and neglecting personal ideas also limit individuals freedom in collective organizations (Akour, 2006). Likewise,

55 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 46 emphasizing on competence and improvements in masculine organizations leads to a feeling of pressure and control in individuals and makes individuals find an external motivation and, as a result, destroy the internal satisfaction of the activity (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Based on what has been discussed earlier, the aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between organizational culture of schools and the satisfaction of basic psychological needs based on Hofstede s cultural dimensions (masculinity/ femininity, individualism/ collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance). On the other hand, based on the differences between cognitive structures of males and females (Brizendine, 2006) and also the method of socialization in work environment and society (Chen, Fosh & Foster, 2008; Vira and Coka, 2010), males and females seem to understand organizational culture and experience the satisfaction of their needs in a different way. Therefore, in addition to the investigation of the relationship between organizational culture and the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, this study also investigates the differences between males and females regarding the satisfaction of needs and understanding the schools of organizational culture. This study hopes to provide school principals with practical suggestions in order to support teachers and their psychological needs. Methodology This study is descriptive in nature and has exploited the canonical correlation analysis. The rationale behind using canonical correlation analysis is the fact that the aim of this study was to discover the changes of criterion variables, which are basic psychological needs, based on predictor variables of Hofstede s cultural dimensions. Since the criterion variable consists of a set of variables named psychological needs, it is not possible to use a multiple regression method. In addition, the gap in the literature satisfies the author to use canonical correlation analysis to

56 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 47 possibly find interesting and complicated relationships between the variables of the study (Tabachnik & Fidell, 2007). Participants and Sampling The initial sample of the present study consisted of all male and female high school teachers in second district of Urmia, Iran. The total number was 335 (172 males, 163 females) and they were teaching in 13 male and 9 female schools in academic year of Based on Cochran s Formula, the sample size was equal to 179. Questionnaires were distributed among 200 teachers. Since 13 teachers (9 males, 4 females) did not complete the questionnaire thoroughly, they were considered as outliers in this study and were not considered in the analysis. Only the data from 187 teachers (101 males and 86 females) were used for final analysis. The mean of work experience was 15 and the standard deviation was Based on Hofstede s (1980) findings, the Iranian culture is determined by medium-plus power distance, medium-plus uncertainty avoidance, medium collectivism, and femininity. Hedayati (2006), of course, concluded in his study that the Iranian culture has experienced some changes. In his study, the Iranian culture scored 64 for power distance, indicating vast power distance, 87 for uncertainty avoidance, suggesting high level of uncertainty avoidance, 82 for collectivism/individualism, demonstrating massive collectivism, and 67 for masculinity/femininity, reflecting tendency toward masculinity. Some researchers hold that this change was caused by the difficult economic status following the 8-year-long war with Iraq (Hadizadeh Moghadam & Assar, 2008). Instruments Basic psychological needs scale: Basic psychological needs scale of Ilardi, Leone, Kasser, Ryan (1993) was used in order to measure this variable. This scale comprised of 21 statements and it

57 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 48 evaluates three psychological needs of autonomy (seven questions), competence (six questions), and relatedness (eight questions). Statements are in the form of a Likert scale ranging from 1 for completely wrong to 5 for completely correct statements. The reliability coefficient of this scale was reported 0.83 in a study by Deci and Ryan (2001) using Cronbach Alpha. In Iran, Ejei, Khezriazar, Babai, and Amani Saribagloo (2009) reported the alpha of this scale as 0.66, 0.74, and 0.68 for autonomy, competence, and relatedness respectively. In the present study, the alpha is 0.70, 0.70, and 0.75 for autonomy, competence, and relatedness respectively. The validity of this questionnaire has been checked by Ejei. Khezryazar, Babai and Amani (2009) using confirmatory factor analysis. Fitting indices of AGFI=0.92, GFI=0.94, RMSEA=0.05, and CFI=0.92 confirm that this questionnaire is fit to Iranian population. Hofstede s cultural dimensions: Akour s questionnaire (2006) was used to measure the dimensions of masculinity/femininity, individualism/collectivism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. This questionnaire is based on Hofstede soriginal questionnaire, which has been adapted to measure the existing culture in educational organizations. This questionnaire has twenty statements and is ordered in a Likert scale from one for strongly disagree to five for strongly agree and measures four dimensions of organizational culture. High scores in this questionnaire indicate high power distance, uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, and masculinity. This means that the lower the scores of collectivism and masculinity, the more the culture of that organization is inclined toward individualism and femininity (Akour, 2006). Since the aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between these dimensions and psychological needs and there is no comparison, there is no need to define a cut point for masculinity/femininity and individualism/collectivism. The reliability of this questionnaire was reported by Akour (2006) in his study (α= 0.82, 0.74, 0.82, and 0.77) for power distance, uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, and masculinity accordingly. In the

58 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 49 present study the Cronbach Alpha calculated as 0.87, 0.82, 0.71, and 0.76 respectively which indicates the appropriate reliability of this questionnaire. Exploratory factor analysis was used to check the construct validity of the questionnaire. Considering the eigenvalue of one as the cut point, four factors were extracted. This accounts to percent of the changes in organizational culture. Factor loadings, extracted variance and eigenvalues are reported in Table 1. Table 1 The results of exploratory factor analysis of organizational culture scale A B C D Item Loading Item Loading Item Loading Item Loading Note: variable names= A: Power distance, B: Masculinity/ femininity, C: Uncertainty avoidance, D: Individualism/ collectivism, 6: Eigenvalue, 7: % of variance Results Before analyzing the relationship between the variables of this study, descriptive statistics of variables including mean, standard deviation, skewedness, and kurtosis have been reported to check the assumption of normal distribution. Table 2 Descriptive statistics of the variables Variable Mean Standard deviation Skewedness Kurtosis

59 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) Note: variable names= 1: Need for Relatedness, 2: Need for Competence, 3: Need for Autonomy, 4: Masculinity/ Femininity, 5: Individualism/ collectivism, 6: Uncertainty avoidance, 7: Power Distance According to Table 2, skewedness and kurtosis indices indicate the normal distributions of the variables. Multivariate normality was examined using Mardia's normalized multivariate kurtosis coefficient. This coefficient for the data in this study is 3.62, indicating multivariate normality of the data as the value is lower than the value of 63 computed based on the P(P+2) formula, where P equals the number of observed variables in the study (Teo & Noyes, 2012). Correlation matrix of variables is also reported in Table 3. Table 3 Correlation matrix of the variables variable ** * 0.29 ** ** 0.24 ** 0.46 ** ** * * ** ** 0.57 ** ** * ** ** 0.51 ** 0.58 ** 1 **p =0.01; *p=0.05

60 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 51 Note: variable names= 1: Masculinity/femininity, 2: Individualism/ collectivism, 3: Uncertainty avoidance, 4: Power distance, 5: Need for Relatedness, 6: Need for competence, 7: Need for autonomy As shown in Table 3, there is a significantly negative relationship between masculinity/femininity and the need for relatedness, competence, and autonomy. There is also a negative significant relationship between individualism/collectivism and the need for relatedness and autonomy. There is a negative significant relationship between uncertainty avoidance and the need for autonomy. Likewise, there is a negative significant relationship between power distance and all psychological needs. Canonical correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship between the school culture and basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) based on Hofstede s cultural dimensions (masculinity/femininity, individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance). Before reporting this analysis, in the figures 1 and 2 the results of linearity and homoscedasticity have been reported. 1 and 2 the results of linearity and homoscedasticity have been reported.

61 Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, July 2014, 4(2) 52 Figure1. The result of linearity Figure 2: the result of homoscedasticity

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