DANIŞMA KURULU / Advisory Board

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2 CİLT VOLUME 3 SAYI ISSUE 2 Megaron ulusal hakemli bir sanal dergi olarak 3 ayda bir Y.T.Ü. Mimarlık Fakültesi tarafından yayınlanmaktadır. EBSCOhost Art& Architecture Complete ve Ulakbim Sosyal Bilimler Veri Tabanı veritabanlarında yer almaktadır. Megaron, planlama-tasarım-yapım ana başlıkları altında yer alan, bilimsel ve teknik makaleleri, teknik notları, okuyucu eleştiri ve katkılarını yayınlamayı hedeflemektedir. Bu geniş içeriği ile dergi, sanal ortamda disiplinlerarası bir iletişim platformu oluşturmayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu ortam, bugünün ölçeğinde ulusal, hedef olarak ise uluslar arası alana akademik çalışmaların yayılmasını sağlayacaktır. Derginin yayın dili Türkçe ve İngilizce dir. Yayın kurulu, yayınlanan yazılarda yer alan görüş ve düşüncelerden sorumlu değildir., Megaron is a quarterly refereed online journal published by Y.T.Ü. Faculty of Architecture. Megaron is included in EBSCOhost Art& Architecture Complete and Ulakbim Social Sciences Databases. Megaron is aiming to publish scientific and technical articles, technical notes, reader critics and contributions under the topics planning-design-building technologies. With this broad content, the journal aims to form an interdisciplinary communication platform in the virtual environment. This context will provide the expansion of academical studies to nationwide for the present and to worldwide as a future goal. Publication languages of the journal are Turkish and English. The editorial board is not responsible of any idea or thought expressed by the author. YAYIN KURULU / Editorial Board GENEL YAYIN YÖNETMENİ / General Publication Director Emre AYSU EDİTÖR / Editor Faruk TUNCER YAYIN KURULU / Editorial Board (alfabetik sıra ile / in alphabetical order) M. Tolga AKBULUT Yiğit EVREN Elif ÖRNEK ÖZDEN Alev ERKMEN ÖZHEKİM Faruk TUNCER Füsun ALİOĞLU (Y.T.Ü.) İlgi YÜCE AŞKUN (M.S.G.S.Ü.) Ayfer AYTUĞ (Y.T.Ü.) Ayşe BALANLI (Y.T.Ü.) Cengiz CAN (Y.T.Ü.) Feridun ÇILI (İ.T.Ü.) Zekai GÖRGÜLÜ (Y.T.Ü.) Şengül ÖYMEN GÜR (K.T.Ü.) Suna GÜVEN (O.D.T.Ü.) Alaattin KANOĞLU (İ.T.Ü.) Ayşenur ÖKTEN (Y.T.Ü.) Oya PAKDİL (Y.T.Ü.) Haluk PAMİR (O.D.T.Ü.) Müjgan ŞEREFHANOĞLU SÖZEN (Y.T.Ü.) DANIŞMA KURULU / Advisory Board (alfabetik sıra ile / in alphabetical order)

3 Bülent TANJU (Y.T.Ü.) Uğur TANYELİ (Y.T.Ü.) Ayhan USTA (K.T.Ü.) Zekiye YENEN (Y.T.Ü.) Ahmet YILDIZCI (İ.T.Ü.) ULUSLARARASI DANIŞMA KURULU / International Advisory Board (alfabetik sıra ile / in alphabetical order) Joseph ABRAM (L ecole d Architecture de Nancy, France) Marcel BAZİN (Uni. De Reims Champaigne Ardenne, France) Fernando NUNES DA SİLVA (Portugal) Manuel da COSTA LOBO (Portugal) Luigi MAFFEİ (Seconda Uni. Degli Studi di Napoli, Italy) Sulan KOLATAN (Colombia Uni., USA) John LOVERING (Cardiff Uni., United Kingdom) François TRAN (L ecole d Architecture de Lyon, France) Milan ZACEK (L ecole d Architecture de Marseille Luminy, France) TEKNİK EDİTÖR / Technical Editor Tuğrul YAZAR BU SAYININ HAKEMLERİ / Refrees for This Issue Prof. Hakkı ÖNEL Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi Mimarlık Bölümü Yıldız Technical University Faculty of Architecture Department of Architecture Prof. Cengiz BAYÜLGEN Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi Mimarlık ve Tasarım Fakültesi Bahçeşehir University Faculty of Architecture and Design Doç.Dr. Bülent TANJU Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi Mimarlık Bölümü Yıldız Technical University Faculty of Architecture Department of Architecture Prof. Dr. Bülent ULUENGİN Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi Mimarlık ve Tasarım Fakültesi Bahçeşehir University Faculty of Architecture and Design Doç. Dr. Cengiz CAN Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi Mimarlık Bölümü Yıldız Technical University Faculty of Architecture Department of Architecture Doç.Dr. Yegân Kâhya İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi Mimarlık Bölümü İstanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture Department of Architecture Prof. İsmet AĞARYILMAZ Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi Mimarlık Bölümü Yıldız Technical University Faculty of Architecture Department of Architecture Prof.Dr. Füsun ALİOĞLU Kadir Has Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Kadir Has University Faculty of Fine Arts Doç. Dr. Seda TÖNÜK Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi Mimarlık Bölümü Yıldız Technical University Faculty of Architecture Department of Architecture

4 Prof.Dr. Tülay ESİN Gebze Yüksek Teknoloji Enstitüsü Mimarlık Fakültesi Gebze Institute of Technology Faculty of Architecture MAKALELER / Articles PLANNING AT TIMES OF UNCERTAINTY Belirsizlik Zamanlarında Planlama Georges PREVELAKIS (Çev.: Ayşe NUR ÖKTEN) Sayfa / Page: FASHION IN VENICE: AN EXPRESSION OF MODERNITY Nilay KAYAALP Sayfa / Page: (Makale geliş tarihi/ article arrival date: , yayına kabul tarihi / acceptance date: ) SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİR TEMEL EĞİTİM BİNASI TASARIMI BAĞLAMINDA ARSA SEÇİMİ ve ANALİZİ KONUSUNUN İRDELENMESİ Examination Of Site Selection And Analyse Subject In Sustainable Elementary School Building Design Kutlu Sevinç KAYIHAN, Seda TÖNÜK Sayfa / Page: (Makale geliş tarihi/ article arrival date: , yayına kabul tarihi / acceptance date: ) KAPADOKYA DA KIZIL KİLİSE Red Church in Cappadocia Banu ÇELEBİOĞLU, İsmet AĞARYILMAZ Sayfa / Page: (Makale geliş tarihi/ article arrival date: , yayına kabul tarihi / acceptance date: ) GAYRİMENKUL GELİŞTİRİCİ AKTÖRLERİN ÇEŞİTLİLİĞİ BAĞLAMINDA KAPALI YERLEŞMELERİN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ Füsun ÇİZMECİ, Hakkı ÖNEL Sayfa / Page: (Makale geliş tarihi/ article arrival date: , yayına kabul tarihi / acceptance date: ) MODERN MİMARLIK MİRASI KAVRAMI: TANIM VE KAPSAM The Concept Of Modern Architectural Heritage: Definiton And Content Elvan Ebru OMAY POLAT, Cengiz CAN Sayfa / Page: (Makale geliş tarihi/ article arrival date: , yayına kabul tarihi / acceptance date: ) KENTSEL ÇÖKÜNTÜ BÖLGELERİNİN ÖRGÜTLENMESİ ve YENİDEN KULLANIM Organization And Re-Use Of Urban Ruined Regions A.Devrim IŞIKKAYA, Hakkı ÖNEL Sayfa / Page: KENTSEL KIYI ALANLARINDA YER ALAN SANAYİ BÖLGELERİNDE DÖNÜŞÜM POTANSİYELİNİN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ; HALİÇ TERSANELER BÖLGESİ

5 The Evaluation of Transformation Potantial Of The Industrial Zones Located On The Urban Waterfronts; Haliç Dockyards Region Bora YERLİYURT, Emre AYSU Sayfa / Page: BOSNA-HERSEK İN SAVAŞ SONRASI DEĞİŞEN KONUT POLİTİKASI MOSTAR ÖRNEĞİ: YENİ YERLEŞİM ALANLARI Bosnia-Herzegovina s Changing Post War Housing Policy Mostar Case: New Settlement Areas Pınar ENGİNCAN, İhsan BİLGİN Sayfa / Page: TEKNİK NOTLAR ARAŞTIRMA RAPORLARI / Technical Notes Research Reports KONSTANTİN KALFA NIN MEKTUBU Oya ŞENYURT Sayfa / Page:

6 Bu sayıda İstanbul daki üç şehir ve bölge planlama bölümünün her yıl, Şehir Plancıları Odası İstanbul Şubesi ile birlikte düzenlediği İstanbuluşmaları paneli bu yıl Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, Mimarlık Fakültesi, Şehir ve Bölge Planlama Bölümü nün ev sahipliğinde 8-9 Ekim 2008 tarihleri arasında Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Oditoryumu nda gerçekleştirildi. Belirsizlik Ortamında İstanbul un Planlama Gündemi konulu panele PARIS I Panthéon Sorbonne Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Enstitüsü Öğretim Üyesi ve Uluslararası SD-MED Akademik Forumu Başkanı Prof.Dr. Georges Prevelakis davetli konuşmacı olarak katıldı. Bu sayıda Prof.Dr. Georges Prevelakis in panel için hazırladığı Planning at Times of Uncertainty başlıklı yazısını, Prof. Dr. Ayşe Nur Ökten in Türkçe çevirisi ile birlikte ilginize sunuyor, buradan gelecek sayılarda planlama ve belirsizlik konusunda katkı koyacak yazarlara da bir çağrıda bulunmak istiyoruz.

7 PLANNING AT TIMES OF UNCERTAINTY Professor Dr. Georges PREVELAKIS Professor of University PARIS I Panthéon Sorbonne, Institut de geographie President of the International SD-MED Academic Forum 1.UNCERTAINTY: THE EXCEPTION OR THE RULE? As a long-term process, Planning relies on prediction. During its era of glory, in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, Planning was closely associated with the New Geography, according to which scientific methods would predict spatial phenomena. However, this theory was proven false, as no credible or objective method emerged from the New Geography. More, a significant number of hypotheses on which planning policies had been based were belied by the evolution. To illustrate the above, let us recall the under-estimation of urban growth in the 1950s and 1960s, followed by the overestimation: the inhabitants of big cities did not evolve according to linear trends. This failure to predict took place in an exceptionally stable historical and geographical context: Western Europe and North America during the Cold War. If freed from euro-centrism and, consequently, with an enlarged view, we realize that unpredictability takes even greater dimensions. Athens wonderful master plan, conceived by European planners in 1910, became useless after the Greek defeat and the ensued exchange of population in No planner could foresee the consequent increase of the Athenian population, from to As expected, all plans were abandoned. An emergency policy was elaborated, so as to cope with the situation of the refugees, after reality destroyed the ideal of City-Beautiful, expressed in the previous plans. Geopolitics exercises a tremendous impact on cities. The Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, i.e. our proper world, became the theatre of historical upheavals which changed radically both the form and the content of eternal cities, like Alexandria. Planning authorities outside the West pay lip-service to the conventional western approach to Planning, nevertheless its efficiency is viewed with skepticism. Parallel systems are invented to cope with the problems that the transposition of western solutions are not able to solve. The same system of urban space production can be observed in Greece and Turkey. The plans and policies that official planners -to their great majority westerneducated- elaborate serve mostly as an alibi to politicians and to business for practices often in flagrant contradiction with them. In Greece and Turkey similar solutions developed: illegal construction, with an electoral/political implication; also, a small-scale construction business, functioning as an informal partnership between a small landowner and a professional of the small scale building industry. These solutions had their practical advantages, as they enhanced social cohesion and stability, allowing rural immigrants integration and contributing to economic growth. The issuing social situation is on a much more human scale, if compared to the big 117

8 Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2008 complexes in the suburbs of western cities, created in application of the principles of the Athens Charter. However, these practices, not having been integrated to a strategic plan, became the source of all sort of functional and environmental problems. In our part of the world, western Planning methods proved inefficient, as too rigid and for other, not less important, inherent reasons, such as the aforementioned geopolitical instability as well as a different popular cultural approach to land, space and housing. 2.ARCHITECTURE AND IDENTITY An additional fact to take into account is the evolution and change of attitudes towards heritage and culture, which, in its turn, has had another strong impact on historical cities. In the late 1970s the West invented industrial archaeology; the industrial heritage of Paris became suddenly worth saving. Roughly at the same time, the Athens Charter was abandoned, to the profit of an entirely new policy for Paris, introduced and realized by the then Mayor and later President of France, Jacques Chirac. In urban history political upheavals always ensued radical changes towards heritage. The 1789 French Revolution destroyed the gothic monuments; a century and a half later, industrial buildings succumbed to the current ideology. In both cases, a few decades later, the destruction was deeply regretted and considerable efforts were undertaken to save whatever building had escaped. The strong relationship between Architecture and Identity explains fully these changeable attitudes. In the Eastern Mediterranean and other parts of the World, monuments constructed by the newly invented others, such as mosques, churches or synagogues were destroyed during the last two centuries, or simply left to abandon and decay. We have G.Prevelakis recently seen again, during the Yugoslav wars, heritage cleansing accompanying ethnic cleansing. In our post-ottoman world, imperial memory, which had marked the urban space, was an impediment to our young national societies identity development. Cities, re-appropriated by the nationalist ethos, contributed to the new identity strategies; or were marginalized. In Greece, Athens, with its 19th century neo-classical emblematic center, symbolized the nationalist idea of uninterrupted continuity from ancient Greece. Salonika, on the contrary, symbol of major religion and culture crossroads, was doomed to amnesia. During the last two centuries, the dominating national construction introduced, ironically, more symbolic predictability in our cities than in the western world. The omnipotent nationalist mythology oriented everything and did not allow major ups and downs, as has often been the case in western cities. However, historical experience shows that cultural and ideological trends are apt to change. Such a perspective might prove the lack of predictability in cases like Istanbul; especially in respect to its cultural center. Globalization, migration, European regionalization, the decline of the Nation- State are the many facets of the nowadays geopolitical and geo-cultural turmoil. Other major world shuttering events are perhaps yet to come. Few cities have the potential of Istanbul to capture and interpret the evolution. 3.WHY ISTANBUL? No other city in the world possesses Istanbul s historical and geographical symbolic value, interpreted either as 118

9 complementary or as contradictory to the European reality. The latter option, adopted by most Westerners, explains the misunderstanding or the indifference concerning its priceless heritage. Moreover, in its effort to distance itself from the ottoman past, Turkish nationalism encouraged the marginalization of the former capital. This is why Istanbul s cultural heritage is treated mostly as a tourist attraction for foreign visitors, who, more often than not, lack the necessary knowledge or are too prejudiced to appreciate it. What lies ahead? The question concerns politics rather than planning. The destiny of the historical part of Istanbul depends on decisive forces, which are not easy to orient, let alone to stop, by any planning institution. Here are mentioned a few possible perspectives: A. Take-over by international capitalism Gradual expulsion of the local population, rehabilitation, restoration and good quality urban design projects, gentrification. If accepted, Istanbul s historical center would develop high standard housing areas, expensive tourist activities and multinational companies buildings. It could become extremely fashionable for the international cosmopolitan bourgeoisie. Environmentally positive, such an evolution would betray the very character of the city, giving entirely in to the western spirit and mentality. B. Stagnation From a political point of view, the difficulties of the post-kemalist transition might turn any endeavor to re-invent the Istanbul role into an extremely sensitive issue. The relationship with the two successive imperial pasts, as reflected through the attitudes towards their religious monuments-symbols will raise political questions to which no easy or safe answer can exist. This type of situation usually leads to a safe minimalistic and technocratic approach. Such an evolution would continue to ignore the cultural potential and the exceptional possibilities of a city like Istanbul. C. Regional integration Geopolitical instability, European difficulties and the challenges of Globalization might make the dream of regional integration reappear. For such a project Istanbul would be the ideal centre: the historical part of the city will have the chance and the duty to re-animate all the diversity, all the wealth of its past, to become a symbol, a synthesis of religions and cultures. From a planning point of view (landscape, environment), this perspective is not necessarily the best-case scenario. It would not lead to the highest environmental quality, as it should preserve much of the social fabric, i.e. a human heritage symbolic of a major crossroads between East and West. Religious monuments should search the right balance between their role of places of worship and museums. Surviving institutions representative of the past, ottoman or other, should become visible and participate to the city life. Istanbul s historical part would thus function as the symbolic laboratory for the reappropriation of the imperial past, adapted to the modern or rather postmoderncontext. *** Planners have always dreamed. Today, our dreams have probably become more realistic, since we have overcome the technocratic utopia and realized our limited capacities to control the forces that model our cities. We are certainly more humble than in the past. 119

10 Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2008 The world is not more or less predictable today than it was before. We are simply more conscious of the uncertainty that surrounds us. Our task, our duty is not to invent and implement the physical and spatial aspects of a predictable future. Our role as planners and as citizens is to participate with our knowledge and our insights to the political debate about our cities, and then to implement collective decisions in the best possible way. Now that we have realized the limitations of our western technocratic training, we know that the attitudes of each one of us can differ, as it they are closely related to our political ideals and to our socio-cultural roots. Our diversity defines the diversity of possible plans for our cities. BELİRSİZLİK ZAMANLARINDA PLANLAMA* Prof. Dr. Georges PREVELAKIS G.Prevelakis PARIS I Panthéon Sorbonne Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Enstitüsü Öğretim Üyesi Uluslararası SD-MED Akademik Forumu Başkanı * Çeviri: Prof. Dr. Ayşe NUR ÖKTEN (Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, Mimarlık Fakültesi, Şehir ve Bölge Planlama Bölümü, Bölge Planlama Anabilim Dalı Başkanı) 1.BELİRSİZLİK: İSTİSNA MI, KURAL MI? Uzun dönemli bir süreç olan planlama kestirimlere dayanır ler, 1960 lar ve 1970 ler boyunca süren parlak dönemlerinde planlama, mekânsal olguları bilimsel yöntemlerle önceden kestiren Yeni Coğrafya akımıyla sıkı sıkıya ilişkili olarak yürütüldü. Ne var ki, Yeni Coğrafya akımı kayda değer ya da objektif bir yöntem ortaya koyamayınca bu kuramın yanlış olduğu anlaşıldı. Dahası, gelişmeler planlama politikalarının dayandırıldığı pek çok hipotezin (önermenin) de yanlış olduğunu gösterdi. Örneğin, 1950 ler ve 1960 larda yapılan kentsel büyüme kestirimleri gerçek değerlerin çok altında kalmış, daha sonra yapılan kestirimlerin ise abartılı olduğu ortaya çıkmıştı: Büyük kentlerde yaşayanlar doğrusal eğilim hesaplarına uygun davranmıyorlardı! Kestirimdeki bu başarısızlık coğrafi ve tarihsel açıdan olağanüstü istikrarlı bir ortamda soğuk savaş içindeki Batı Avrupa ve Kuzey Amerika da- gerçekleşmiştir. Avrupa-odaklı olmaktan uzaklaşıp daha geniş bir açıdan baktığımızda bu kestirilemezlik daha da büyük bir ölçeğe ulaşmaktadır. Avrupa lı plancıların 1910 da tasarladıkları harika Atina nazım planı 1922 deki Yunan 120

11 yenilgisinden ve onu izleyen nüfus mübadelesinden sonra işe yaramaz bir belgeye dönüşmüştür. Hiç bir plancı Atina nın nüfusunun den e fırlayacağını öngörememiştir. Tahmin edileceği gibi, tüm planlar terkedilmişti. Yaşamın gerçekleri o güne dek yapılan Atina planlarındaki City Beautiful idealini yerlebir edince Türkiye den kaçan göçmenler sorununun üstesinden gelmek üzere bir acil durum planı geliştirilmişti. Jeopolitik dinamiklerin kentler üzerinde çok büyük etkisi vardır. Doğu Akdeniz ve Orta Doğu, bizim kendi dünyamız, büyük tarihsel çalkantıların, patlamaların sahnesi olmuştur; öyle ki, bu patlamalar İskenderiye gibi ebedi kentlerin hem biçimsel hem de içerik olarak kökten değişmesine yol açmıştır. Batı dışındaki planlama yetkililerinin söylemleri konvansiyonel Batılı planlama yaklaşımını destekler gibi gözükürse de gerçekte bu yaklaşımın ne kadar etkili olabileceği konusunda kuşkularla doludur. O nedenle, Batılı çözümlerin aynen kopyalanmasıyla çözülemeyen durumlar için onlara koşut sistemler bulunmuştur. Yunanistan da ve Türkiye deki kentsel mekânın üretilmesinde aynı sistemin işletildiği gözlenmektedir. Politikacılar ve sermaye kesimi, çoğunluğu Batı eğitimi almış resmi plancıların geliştirdiği planları kendi eylemlerini, uygulamalarını aklamak için bir gerekçe, haklı göstermek için bir özür olarak kullanmaktadırlar. Oysa, bu uygulamalar çoğunlukla aklama belgesi olarak gösterilen planların özündeki düşüncelerle taban tabana zıttır. Yunanistan da ve Türkiye de benzer çözümler geliştirilmiştir: siyasal sonuçları seçimleri etkileyebilen yasa dışı yapılaşma; küçük toprak sahipleriyle küçük yükleniciler arasındaki enformel ortaklıklarla yürüyen küçük ölçekli inşaat sektörü. Bu çözümlerin, toplumsal bağlılığı ve istikrarı güçlendirmek, kırsal alanlardan göçenlerin kente entegrasyonunu kolaylaştırmak, ekonomik büyümeye katkı sağlamak gibi pratik bazı yararları vardı. Batı kentlerinin varoşlarında Atina Belgesi (Athens Charter) ilkelerinin uygulanmasıyla ortaya çıkan büyük komplekslerle karşılaştırıldığında bu çözümlerin doğurduğu toplumsal olgunun çok daha insani ölçekte olduğu görülmektedir. Ne var ki, bu pratik çözümler bir strateji planı kapsamına alınmadığı için zamanla her türlü işlevsel ve çevresel sorunun kaynağı durumuna gelmiştir. Batılı planlama yöntemi hem hiç esnek olmadığı için hem de bölgenin içsel özellikleri nedeniyle dünyanın bizim yaşadığımız bu bölgesinde etkisiz kalmıştır. Bölgenin içsel özelliklerinden birisi, daha önce belirttiğim gibi, siyasal istikrarsızlıktır; diğer özelliği ise halkın toprağa, mekâna ve konuta yaklaşımındaki kültürel farktır. 2.MİMARİ VE KİMLİK Bunlara ek olarak göz önüne alınması gereken bir başka gerçek de kültüre ve kültürel mirasa yönelik tavırdaki evrim ve değişikliklerdir, ki bunun da tarihi kentler üzerinde önemli etkileri olmuştur lerin sonlarına doğru Batı sanayi arkeolojisini icat edince Paris in sanayi mirası birdenbire korunmaya değer konuma gelmiştir. Hemen hemen aynı zamanda Atina Belgesi (ilkeleri) terk edilerek o zamanki belediye başkanı daha sonra Fransa devlet başkanı olan- Jacque Chirac tarafından Paris için yepyeni bir politika ortaya atılmış ve gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kentlerin tarihinde siyasal ayaklanmalar sonucunda her zaman kültür mirasına yönelik radikal değişiklikler olmuştur Fransız Devrimi gotik anıtları harap etmiştir; bir buçuk yüzyıl sonra sanayi yapıları egemen ideolojiye yenik düşmektedir. Her iki örnekte de verilen zararlar bir kaç on yıl sonra derin pişmanlıkla anılmış, ayakta 121

12 Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2008 kalabilen yapıları kurtarmak için çok ciddi çaba harcanmıştır. Tavırlardaki bu değişkenlik mimariyle kimlik arasındaki güçlü ilişki ile açıklanabilir. Doğu Akdeniz de ve dünyanın başka bölgelerinde son iki yüz yıldır ötekiler tarafından yapılmış yapılar, camiler, kiliseler ya da sinagoglar ya yıkılmakta ya da harap olarak yıkılmak üzere kendi haline terkedilmiştir. Son olarak Yugoslavya daki savaşta etnik temizlik ile miras temizliği nin nasıl birlikte yürütüldüğünü yeniden görülmüştür. Bizim Osmanlı sonrası dünyamızda da kent mekânına damgasını vurmuş olan imparatorluk anıları genç ulusal toplumlarımızın kimliklerinin gelişmesinin önünde bir engel gibi görülmüştü. Ulusalcı düşünce tarafından ele geçirilen kentler ya yeni kimlik stratejilerinin aracı haline gelmişler ya da marjinalleştirilmiş, bir kenara itilmişlerdir. Yunanistan da Atina, 19.yüzyıl neo-klasik biçemin temsilcisi olan merkeziyle ulusalcıların Antik Yunan ın kesintisiz sürekliliği ideasını simgelemekteydi. Buna karşılık, büyük dinlerin ve kültürlerin kavşağı olarak simgeleşmiş olan Selanik unutulmaya mahkûm edilmişti. Ne tuhaftır ki, son iki yüz yıldır egemen olan ulusalcı yapılanma bizim kentlerimizdeki simgesel belirliliğin (kestirilebilirliğin) Batı dünyasındakinden daha çok olmasını sağlamıştır. Her şeye kadir ulusalcı mitoloji kentlerde de her şeye yön vermiş, Batı kentlerinde görülen büyük iniş çıkışlara olanak tanımamıştır. Ancak, tarihsel deneyimler kültürel ve ideolojik eğilimlerin değişmeye yatkın olduğunu göstermektedir. Böyle ulusalcı bir bakış açısı İstanbul gibi bir örnekte, özellikle kültürel merkez söz konusu olduğunda, belirlilik başarısını koruyamayabilir. G.Prevelakis Globalleşme, göç, Avrupa nın bölgeselleşmesi ve ulus devletin gerilemesi günümüzün jeopolitik ve jeo-kültürel keşmekeşinin değişik yüzleridir. Belki, dünyayı sarsacak daha başka önemli, büyük olaylar da olacaktır. Ama, pek az kentte İstanbul daki gibi evrimi yakalayacak ve yorumlayabilecek potansiyel vardır. 3.NEDEN İSTANBUL? Dünyadaki başka hiç bir kent, ne tarihsel ne de coğrafi açıdan, İstanbul un sahip olduğu simgesel değere sahip değildir. Bu simgesel değer bazen Avrupa gerçeğinin tamamlayıcısı bazen da Batı gerçeğiyle çelişkili diye yorumlanmaktadır. Batılıların çoğu tarafından benimsenen ikinci yorum İstanbul un paha biçilmez mirasının yanlış anlaşılmasından ya da bu mirasa kayıtsız kalınmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Dahası, Türk ulusalcılığı da, Osmanlı geçmişinden uzaklaşma çabası içinde, eski başkentin marjinalleşmesini teşvik etmiştir. O nedenle, İstanbul un kültür mirası daha çok yabancı ziyaretçiler için, ki çoğu ya bilgisizlikleri ya da ön yargıları nedeniyle bu mirasın değerini anlayamaz, turistik çekim aracı olarak ele alınmaktadır. Gelecekte ne var? Bu soru planlamadan çok siyasetin konusudur. İstanbul un tarihi bölümünün kaderi karar odaklarına bağlıdır; ancak bu odakların her hangi bir planlama kurumu tarafından durdurulması şöyle dursun, yönlendirilmeleri bile kolay değildir. Aşağıda bazı olası yaklaşımlar sıralanmıştır: A. Uluslararası sermayenin kenti ele geçirmesi Yerel halkın yavaş yavaş kentten atılması; sağlıklılaştırma; restorasyon ve yüksek nitelikli kentsel projeler; soylulaştırma. Bu yaklaşım kabullenilirse, yüksek nitelikli konut alanları, pahalı turistik etkinlikler ve çokuluslu firmaların yapılarıyla geliştirilen 122

13 tarihi merkez uluslararası kosmopolitan burjuvazi için çok moda bir yer durumuna gelecektir. Doğal çevreye de olumlu etkisi olacak bu gelişme, tümüyle Batılı bir ruha ve anlayışa teslim edilen İstanbul un özgün kimliğine bir ihanettir. B.Durağanlık (stagnation) Siyasal açıdan bakıldığında, Kemalizm sonrası değişimlerin yarattığı sıkıntılar İstanbul un rolünü yeniden tanımlamaya yönelik her türlü çabayı son derece hassas meseleler durumuna getirebilir. Kentin tarihiyle ilişkisi geçmişindeki iki imparatorluğun dinsel ve anıtsal simgelerine karşı benimsenen tutumda kendini gösterir. Bu ilişki kolay ya da güvenli yanıtı olmayan siyasal soruları gündeme getirecektir. Böylesi durumlarda genellikle minimalist ve teknokratik yaklaşımın güvenli yoluna girilir. Bu yolda İstanbul gibi bir kentin kültürel potansiyelinin ve olağan üstü olanaklarının bilmezden gelinmesine devam edilir. C. Bölgesel bütünleşme (entegrasyon) Jeopolitik istikrarsızlık, Avrupa yla olan sıkıntılar ve globalleşmenin zorlamaları bölgesel bütünleşme rüyasının yeniden görülmesine yol açabilir. Böyle bir projenin ideal odağı İstanbul olacaktır: Kentin tarihsel kesimi geçmişin tüm farklılıkları, tüm zenginlikleri canlandırma, bir simge, dinlerin ve kültürlerin bir sentezi durumuna gelme fırsatına -ve sorumluluğuna- sahip olacaktır. Planlama açısından (peyzaj, çevre) bakıldığında bu yaklaşımın en iyi senaryo olmadığı görülür. Bu senaryoya göre mevcut toplumsal doku sürdürüleceği, bir başka deyişle, Doğu ile Batının önemli kavşak noktasını simgeleyen insan mirası büyük oranda korunacağı için çevre kalitesinde en üst düzey yakalanamayacaktır. Dinsel anıtların ibadet yeri ve müze rolleri arasında bir denge aramak gerekecektir; bugüne kadar varlığını sürdürebilmiş, Osmanlı nın ya da bir başka geçmişin temsilcisi olan kurumların görünür kılınması, kent yaşamına katılmasını sağlamak gerekecektir. Dolayısıyla, İstanbul un tarihsel kesimi imparatorluk geçmişinin yeniden kazanılarak modern, daha doğrusu post modern, bağlam içine oturtulacağı bir simgesel laboratuar işlevi yüklenecektir. *** Plancıların her zaman düşleri olmuştur. Bugün artık daha gerçekçi düşler görüyor olabiliriz; çünkü teknokratik ütopyayı aştık; kentlerimizi biçimlendiren güçleri denetleme kapasitemizin ne kadar sınırlı olduğunu artık anladık. Hiç kuşku yok ki, geçmiştekinden daha alçak gönüllüyüz. Dünya geçmişte olduğundan daha az ya da daha çok kestirilebilir bir dünya değil. Ama biz, bizi çevreleyen belirsizliğin daha çok bilincindeyiz. Bizim görevimiz, bizim sorumluluğumuz kestirilebilir bir geleceğin fiziksel ve mekânsal boyutunu tasarlamak ve uygulamak değildir. Plancılar ve vatandaşlar olarak bizim rolümüz, kentimizle ilgili siyasal tartışmanın içinde plancı bilgisi ve kavrayışıyla yer almak, sonra da bu tartışmadan çıkan ortak kararları olabilecek en iyi biçimde uygulamaktır. Batılı teknokratik planlama öğrenimimizin sınırlarının, zayıflıklarının artık farkında olduğumuza göre her birimizin yaklaşımının farklı olacağını da biliyoruz. Plancılar olarak yaklaşımlarımız politik düşüncelerimizle, ideallerimizle ve sosyo-kültürel köklerimizle yakından ilişkilidir ve bunlara bağlı olarak farklılaşır. Bizim farklılıklarımız kentlerimiz için olası planların çeşitliliğini tanımlar. 123

14 FASHION IN VENICE 1 : AN EXPRESSION OF MODERNITY Nilay KAYAALP ABSTRACT The focus of this paper is to study the emergence and the impacts of fashion in the early-modern Venetian society as an expression of modernity. The concept of fashion is studied not only as a mode of dressing but as a social, cultural, economic, symbolic, political, artistic, psychological phenomenon. Fashion is taken as a reason and a result of the European modernity due to its role in the resolution of the tradition. In the first section, the concept of fashion and its historical evolution and sociological influences are analyzed. Later the development of the textile industry in Europe and its impacts on Mediterranean trade is discussed. The social, political and economic structure of Venice during the 13th and 15th centuries is briefly summarized in the third part. In the final section, the role of fashion in Venetian society, the symbolic meaning of dressing, the economic value of garments, the production and supply channels of textile are analyzed. The changes and transformations taking place in every aspect of life during the early modern period found a way of (re)presenting themselves in terms of fashion. The concept of fashion is evaluated not only as a way of dressing but also as a paradigm of modernity including a set of manners and behaviors for being right in a specific time and a specific context. Keywords: Modernity, Fashion, Textile, Renaissance, Venice ÖZET Bu araştırmanın amacı moda kavramını erken modern Venedik toplumu bağlamında ele alarak, sosyal ve ekonomik etkilerini incelemek ve moda kavramının modernite üzerinden bir okumasını yapmaktır. Moda sadece bir giyinme şekli olarak değil, sosyal, kültürel, sembolik, politik, sanatsal ve pisikolojik bir etmen olarak ele alınmıştır. Bu çalışmada, moda kavramının geleneksel olanı çözerek, Batı modernitesinin hem sonuçlarından, hem de sebeplerinden biri olduğu öne sürülmüştür. İlk bölümde, moda kavramının ortaya çıkışı, kısa tarihçesi ve toplum üzerindeki etkileri anlatılmıştır. Daha sonra, Batı Avrupa da tekstil endüstrisinin oluşumu ve Akdeniz ticareti üzerindeki etkileri tartışılmıştır. Venedik kentinin kısa tarihçesi ve 13. ve 15. yüzyıllar arasındaki sosyal, politik ve ekonomik yapısı üçüncü bölümde kısaca özetlenmiştir. Son bölümde ise moda kavramının erken modern Venedik dünyasındaki rolü ve giysinin sembolik ve ekonomik anlamları, tekstil üretim ve dağıtım süreçleri, kıyafetin farklı kullanım amaçları tartışılmıştır. Bu dönemde hayatın her aşamasında meydana gelen değişim ve transformasyonlar kendilerini moda kavramı altında temsil edebilmişlerdir. Ele alınan dönemde kadın modasının değişim ve dönüşümü 1490 ile 1609 tarihleri arasında yapılmış Venedikli kadın portreleri üzerinden ortaya konulmuştur. Bu metinde moda, sadece bir giyim konusu olarak değil, aynı zamanda bir tavırlar ve hareketler bütünü olarak, belirli bir zaman aralığında ve belirli bir bağlam içerisinde doğru olmak olarak ele alınmış ve bir modernite paradigması olarak incelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Modernite, Moda, Tekstil, Rönesans, Venedik 1 This article is developed from a term paper produced for Urban Structures and Strata course offered by Prof. Dr. Murat Güvenç. 124

15 Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2008 INTRODUCTION Charles Baudelaire, propounded the term modernity in his essay The Painter of Modern Life ( ) and defined modernity as the transient, the fleeting, the contingent; the half of art of which the other half is eternal and immovable. [1] In this essay Baudelaire criticized the painters of his age for dressing their characters in Renaissance fashion instead of contemporary dresses and lacking the ability to represent the present. Those painters believe that Renaissance fashion represents the eternal and immovable half of the art and neglect the duality of beauty which also includes the relative aspects, such as the trends, the fashion and the moral values of the time. [2] Even though Renaissance clothing seemed to be an ultimate classic for those painters, the emergence and evolution of fashion-as a continuous change of trends- corresponds with the same era. During the early modern era of 15 th and 16 th centuries and especially during the transition period of the 14 th century, visible signs of change and resolution of tradition in Western Europe were recorded. This detachment from traditional ways of living, acting, or thinking can be interpreted as an emerging modernity. This paper aims to highlight the connection between the evolution of modernity and the changing pattern of everyday practices of early modern Venetians. Fashion, was chosen as a simple but clearly visible indicator of the changing mentality and technological, moral, artistic, economic and political developments of Renaissance. In this study, the evolution, the direct and indirect implications, and the role of fashion in the early modern European society are analyzed and the modern concepts such as individuality, sexuality, transformation, imitation and differentiation are discussed. This study hopes to develop a new approach for understanding the N.Kayaalp transformations taking place in early modern European society. In spite of a macro perspective analyzing the economic and political developments; a micro perspective exploring the impacts of fashion as an indicator of the changing everyday practices and tastes, is offered. The first part of the article focused on the definition and the evolution of the fashion phenomenon and its cultural, social, symbolic, economic and even psychological impacts were analyzed. In the second part, the significant role of the textile industry in European enlightenment and capitalism was discussed. The last section of the article focused on Venice, as an essential hub of the medieval world trade network and as an important center for artistic and cultural developments of Renaissance. Various implications of fashion, from supply channels to economic value and from symbolic significance to social consequences were discussed. The relatively fast change of the women s fashion between the late 15 th and early 17 th centuries was depicted by investigating several Venetian lady portraits. Being fashionable was an object of desire in Venetian society with its cultural, economic, symbolic, political, artistic, psychological, and hierarchical impacts. Venetian Fashion, in this paper, was regarded not only as a major reason of but also as the result of the European modernity. 1. FASHION We are all Adams sons, silk onely distinguisheth us. [3] We have to separate men s basic urge to cover and decorate their body, from the concept of fashion -as we understood today. We have to accept the fact that fashion is not a universal or constant but a historical concept. There has always been a tradition and customs of clothing, and it may differ from society to society, between 125

16 different sexes, and between the various social ranks of the same society. However in the pre-modern societies the rules of clothing were fixed; the norm did not change from one generation to another. Because primitive society is conservative, it respects the past and is loyal to its ancestors, traditions and legacies. The same type of tunic-dress has been kept unchanged for almost fifteen centuries in ancient Egypt. In Ancient Greece, India, China, or Japan we observe the same kind of stability of clothing styles going on for centuries. The same tastes, same traditions, same rituals were carried on without any major changes, because the focus of the traditional societies was to respect history and to reproduce the past. [4] Braudel summarizes the fact as, If a society remained more or less stable, fashion was less likely to change and this could be true at all levels, even the highest established hierarchies. [5] The organizations resistant to change and transformation show little diversity in terms of fashion. The traditional costume of Vatican Swiss Guards; silk gowns, wigs, and ceremonial sashesthe of the British judges; or the universal appearance of nuns proves the stable nature of these institutions. During the times of economic depression or war, fashion showed little variation. On the contrary, a great shift in dressing styles occurred in post-war years or economic development periods. Before the 12th century, wearing fashionable clothes for the low or middle classes was forbidden as it was regarded as an attempt for breaking social order. [6] According to Braudel, the stable and uniform clothing style of Europeans until the 14th century suddenly changed after 1350 with the drastic shortening of men s clothes. [7] The same long flowing robe worn by both sexes was replaced by a totally new type of dress that was very different for gender: short and fitted for men and long and close to the body for women. This revolution in apparel laid the groundwork for modern dress. [8] Various national styles had been evolved and a so-called fashion craze had begun starting from that date. Fashion can not be explained as the set of rules for clothing properly, but it is a much complex social phenomenon. Fashion by its nature calls for constant change. The word is derived from the Latin facere, meaning to measure or to make. It can be defines as being right in a specific time and context. [9] Even in the same society and in the same time frame one s appearance could be perfect for a specific occasion and totally absurd for another. Where, when, and how you wear a dress is of crucial importance. A simple garment takes meaning in a specific social and cultural context. We have to have the necessary background information to decode the symbolic meaning of fashion. Paul Nystrom said If we could understand the full significance of a woman s hat we could prophesy her clothes for the next year, the interior decoration of the next two years, architecture of the next ten years, and we would have a fairly accurate notion of the pressures, political, economic, religious, that go to make the shape of an age. [10] His words supported the Sprit of the Age theory of fashion adaptation. The theory assumes that the impacts of the social, cultural, economic or political conjuncture of the time are reflected through fashion. [11] For instance, during the religious periods of the middle ages, more conservative apparel for men and women were appropriate; clothing covered the silhouette, hide the body curves, and concealed sexuality. Politically dominating or invading countries impose their dressing customs and rituals. The black and tight costume of the Spanish influencing other European elites in the 16 th century was related with the Spanish domination of Atlantic trade after the discovery of America. Thus it is not surprising to see the great shift and transformation in fashion during the great cultural, political, cultural 126

17 Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2008 transformation years of European Renaissance. The word fashion was recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary for the first time in 1568 as the mode of dress... adopted in society for the time being [12], however there are several theories for the functions of clothing and apparel. The modesty theory assumes that we dress because we are ashamed of nakedness. The immodesty theory suggests that clothing is not used to cover the body but to attract attention to it and the protection theory accepts the use of clothing as an item of physical and psychological security. The most widely accepted view, the adornment and decoration theory accepts the fact that individual self expressionism and the desire for beauty are basic human instinct. Nevertheless, dressing is not a simple action to be explained by simple motives. Clothing and apparel are the products of complex physical, psychological, and social conditions. [13] Fashion is not only how a person dresses up but how he behaves, acts and manners. It is a symbol of statue, wealth, education, and class. The fashion of upper classes were never identical with those of lower, they are discarded by the upper classes as soon as the lower class starts to copy them. This structure of imitation and differentiation explains how fashion constantly changed and evolved. The similarity of fashion within the members of a specific class also excludes other classes. Simmel evaluates fashion with the two complementary forces of the human nature; the need for unification and the need for distinction. [14] These two tendencies are valid both in individual personality and in the society as a group. The need for union is mostly expressed as imitation. When someone imitates, he does not stand alone and shares the responsibility of his actions. The imitation is the adaptation of the past and when someone advances beyond this stage N.Kayaalp by expressing his individuality, he is now acting for the future. Fashion also satisfies the need for differentiation, the tendency towards dissimilarity, the desire for change and contrast by its ever evolving nature. Even though, Simmel categorized the desire for differentiation and unification as forces of human nature, these concepts appeared as a result of modernity, with the realization of the self as an individual. 2.EUROPEAN TEXTILE INDUSTRY Jones & Stallybrass argued that the making and transmission of fabrics and clothing were central to the making of Renaissance culture. [15] Textile industry, apparently correlated with fashion, was the main economic drive behind the European enlightenment. Developing international trade created a new rich merchant class intending to establish a status in a rigid hierarchical society, using conspicuous consumption as a tool for distinction. We should set a brief picture of the medieval Europe to better understand the undeniable impact of textile, trade, and fashion on European history. [16] After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Europe was under complete chaos and poverty, the church was the only dominating force. Europe was economically dependant to the East Byzantine, Arabs, China and India and it was actually economically, technically, and scientifically far behind East. Everything Europeans needed including spice, luxurious material, silk, everyday goods had to be obtained from the East through the Silk Route. Venice was an important hub in this crucial transmission, as the city had a distinctive economic relation with the Byzantines who were trying to diminish the Genoese dominancy on Mediterranean trade. Venice was one of the most important trade centers of its time since the goods coming from Constantinople was distributed from the city all through Europe. 127

18 Before 12 th century, Europe did not have anything to offer to East in exchange, except for slave, silver, and timber. Later on, Europeans discovered that there was a great demand for European high quality woolen textile from East. The rainy, nonagricultural, limitless, fertile land of the Northern Europe was the perfect place for animal breeding. Europe, especially England and Flanders produced the best quality wool of the known world. Now there was a demand from East for something Europe could supply. This would totally change the pattern of trade and the power balances between East and West within the coming centuries. Italian merchants had advanced in the textile industry by creating agent cities in northern Europe, collecting high quality wool or linen from there and finishing them in their hometown. Venice became an especially important center for textile production and distribution. Venetians established an elaborate system for silk production, linen industry, and wool-textile industry. 3.VENICE Venice was a city-state that was established on a lagoon, composed of 120 small isles. When the Roman Empire collapsed, approximately 300 communities escaped from barbarians and settled down in Venice. The physical condition of the area was extremely unsuitable to establish a city but it was rich in terms of salt mineral which was very precious during the Middle Ages. Venetians built parcels on the lagoon by filling the land with wooden piles, erected houses and organized hundreds of canals for transportation. The Grand Canal, was the main connection route from mainland to the sea was three kilometers long. The Rialto Bridge was built on the highest point of the land and it was the most important business center of Venice. Piazza St. Marco was the political and administrative center of the city. The most important goods such as silk, spices, metals were traded in the arcaded shops of Rialto. The best shops were located on the land route connecting Rialto Bridge and the Piazza St. Marco and the best and the largest houses were located along the sides of the Grand Canal. Those houses were used both residentially and commercially as warehouses, with their convenient reach from the harbor to Rialto. Venetians constructed an elaborate system to support their city. The large granaries to stock grain were a solution to feed the city as there was no fertile land in Venice. Although there wasn t and fresh water sources to support the textile industry, Venetians managed to bring water from mainland or collect rainwater in underground cisterns. The well-heads and the typical water collecting chimneys of Venice can still be seen today. The social and political life of medieval Venice was as complex. There was a rigid hierarchical system. The ruler class of Venice has remained unchanged for almost five centuries. This steady group never let the middle or the lower class gain political power. Many members of the merchant class were richer than the Venetian nobles and they were actively worked for the scule, the nonprofit apolitical civil service, instead of politics. Being in the council of ten in scule was extremely prestigious among the merchant class. Rich merchant families lacking a political status, paid tremendous importance to fashion to compete with nobility. Fashion was the tool for Venetians to establish their position in this hierarchical society. Even the status of the nobleman was distinguished with the color of their robe; ordinary noble wore black, Collage wore violet, and the Dodge wore golden robe. The coloring of fabric was also a very complicated task in early modern Europe and black and purple colored fabrics were among the hardest to achieve. [17] 128

19 Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2008 Tarde differentiated between customary and fashionable societies as former being more passionate about their country than their period and where fashion dominated people are prouder of their era than their country. I believe that was the case in early modern Venice. Becoming a major economic and cultural center of Europe, Venetians no longer need to recall the past. Their time was believed to be the golden age of Venice, it was the time to look towards the future, not the past. In economically expansive periods, increasing importance was laid on fashion. [18] The great economic achievements of Italian cities during the 15th and 16th centuries were of course very much effective in the creation, adaptation, expansion and development of fashion. In fact Europe had experienced an incredible economic accomplishment with the textile industry along with textile trade and actually gained economic and cultural independence from the East. The close relation between the textile industry and the creation of fashion was stated by Foley as: Fashion underpinned the commercial growth and cultural transformation of Western society. [19] 4.THE ROLE OF FASHION IN VENICE Clothing as an industry is a large and interrelated sum of practices ranging from raw materials, production, manufacture, distribution and supply to sales with various cultural, social and economic impacts. [20] Starting from 13 th century, the raw materials were collected mostly from northern Europe, especially from Bruges, the agent town of Venice. The production of fabrics was complex process including spinning, weaving, and finishing techniques. The technology of the time played an important role in this production. Special manufacturing quarters were established within the city where various textile workers such as spinners, weavers, dyers were located. Venice was one of the largest N.Kayaalp manufacturers of silk. Wool, linen, and cotton were also major products for the domestic and foreign market. The clothes were finished in disparate patterns to satisfy European taste or the Eastern taste. Therefore the textile industry had a huge economic impact both on the domestic and the international trade. The emergence of fashion also triggered consumer demand for apparel. The increase in the demand for clothing supported the textile industry. With the desire to follow fashion, people began changing their clothing and apparel regularly. Clothes did not live their full material life but their fashionable life. Apparel could be worn as long as it was trendy and acceptable in public and the rapid change in the norms of fashion stimulated consumption. Stimulating impact of fashion on textile industry was soon to be discovered by the merchants, suppliers and producers of the time. The supply channels for clothing were also numerous. The fashionable dresses and apparels could be attained from several ways in early modern Venice. [21] Apart from the traditional shops for purchasing attire, short-term rental, second-hand dealers were also common. Venice also had a reputation for its talented tailors having one of the oldest and strongest guilds of the city. Fabrics can be obtained from drapers and mercers and the famous street connecting San Marco to Rialto Bridge was called the Merceire named after these shops. The economic value of clothing was as important as its symbolic meaning. Since medieval times, the salary workers, servants or maids were paid not in currency but in terms of food and dress. Livery, actually meant food and drink given to people in return of their service but it has changed its meaning since workers were mostly compensated with clothing. [22] Dresses had an exchange value and were kept as insurance for bad times. It was a 129

20 valuable item for pawnbrokers. Clothing was given as guarantee against loans, debts or payments. Borrowing dresses or giving garments as gifts were also very common and clothing can even be used as bribe in early modern Venice. Clothing theft was an old problem as well. After midsixteenth century, dressing the poor for charitable purposes were practiced by the Venetian government and became common among patricians. Apart from the economic impacts, the fashion had a strong symbolic meaning in Venetian society. Simmel suggests that there was no fashion for the Venetian upper class as they were ordered to wear black togas to maintain social stability. The differentiation from lower classes was prevented by law. [23] Actually numerous sumptuary laws were established during this period to prevent lower classes imitate the nobles or to regulate the elite itself. It is a question of mystery how well those regulations were enforced and how often they were changed. As opposed to Simmel s evaluation, significant change in fashion can clearly be seen in the portraits of Venetian genteel. (Figures 2,3,4) The costumes in those portraits were depicted in extreme detail. The dresses were even portrayed better than the faces since they were sent to the artist s studio later on. It is fact that aristocratic dresses were much expensive than the portrait itself. [24] With the help of Renaissance paintings, we can see a brief chronology of Venetian female fashion starting from 1490 to [25] The simple and symmetrical figure in late 15th century became more elaborate by the turn of the century and more and more emphasis was given to the sleeve. Two or more different kinds of fabric, mostly the underwear camicia- were exposed in the sleeve. The higher waistline just below the bust got lower and the neckline enlarged exposing the chest and the neckline in early 1500s. Later in 1520 s sleeves got larger with larger cuffs. The camicia was clearly revealed from the openings of the sleeve. Waistline dropped almost to its natural place. The boat-shaped bodices were almost dropping from the shoulder exposed the undergarment. By 1530 s the shoulder part was exaggerated and the sleeve got more fitted. The hairstyles got more elaborate during this time and hair ornaments were introduced in 1530 s. The use of stylish jewelry and accessories were characteristic to the period. More importance was paid on the fabric itself and amazing patterns of cloths were used by the mid 17th century. By the end of the century, elegant lace collarets and skirts in full volume with V-shaped waistlines got fashionable. In contrast to the rigid hierarchical system, Venice was quite a dynamic city. Continuous newcomers laborers, artisans, nobles, or merchants from other cities- and increasing volume of international trade created cultural diversity and dynamism to the society. The renowned carnivals and festivals of the city were the indicators of this dynamism. The use of masks and costumes also reinforced the symbolic meaning of garments as a symbol of social identity. It is not surprising to observe the exposition of dresses as a sign of social status or individual aesthetic. Venice was famous for its ostentatiously dressed women by the fifteenth century. In 1494 Casola wrote about Venetian women that they love to see and to bee seen in public. To see and to be seen was an unusual concept for the medieval Europeans. [26] The Christian, introverted society had no tools or mediums to express its social identity. Renaissance brought new ideas, new concepts, and new spaces which would change the patterns of social life drastically. To see or to be seen was not important unless the signs of social order were decoded. Fashion gained meaning as long as there were ones to appreciate, follow or abandon it. The concept of ever 130