HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR VERİMLİLİK VE KIYASLAMALAR Yrd. Doç. Dr. Abdullah DEMİR «Her ter ih ir vazgeçiştir»
What is an EPA rating? Conditions Drive cycle: e.g. city or highway cycle, realworld, or constant speed Test temperature Start: (warm or cold) Fuel: convert to gasoline-equivalent Test mass: (accounts for passengers and cargo) MPGe rating PHEV s Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Fuel Economy of PHEVs The fuel economy of conventional vehicles is evaluated by fuel consumption (liters) per 100 km, or miles per gallon. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency sets the methods for fuel economy certification. There are usually two numbers, one for city driving and one for highway driving. There is an additional fuel economy number that evaluates the combined fuel economy by combining the 55% city and 45% highway MPG numbers [6 8]: For pure EVs, the fuel economy is best described by electricity consumption for a certain range, for example, watt hour/mile or kwh/100 km. For example, a typical passenger car consumes 120 250 Wh/mile. In order to compare the fuel efficiency of EVs with conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles, the energy content of gasoline is used to convert the numbers. Since 1 gallon of gasoline contains 33.7 kwh energy (http://www.eere.doe.gov), the equivalent fuel economy of an EV can be expressed as Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Fuel Economy of PHEVs Therefore, a passenger car that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have an equivalent gasoline mileage of 140 MPG from the energy point of view. Notlar: MPG = mil/gal 1 gal = 4,54 litre (UK) 1 gal = 3,78 litre (US) 1 barrel petroluen = 42 gal = 158,99 litre (ham petrol) [US] 1 mil= 1609 m Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
EK NOTLAR: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle - Ye i Avrupa Sürüş Çevri i) Çevri : Bir taşıtı belli bir mesafeyi belli hız ve viteslerde katetmesidir. Özellikler: Çe ri uzu luğu : 11,007 km Ortala a hız : 33.6 km/h Maks. hız : 120 km/h Avrupa: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle - Yeni Avrupa Sürüş Çe ri i) 40 saniye röla ti periyotsuzdur. Ölçü motor çalıştırıldıkta hemen sonra aşlar.
EK NOTLAR: YAKIT TÜKETİMİ ÖLÇME Yakıt tüketim testleri/değerleri, genellikle 2004/3/EC ile düzeltilmiş AB Direktifi 80/1268/EEC'ye göre yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca AB nin RL 1999/100/CE normuna göre de değerler verilmektedir. Araçların teknik özelliklerinin belirtildiği broşür ya da kullanıcı el kitaplarındaki şehir içi, şehir dışı ve ortalama yakıt tüketim değerlerinin hangi direktiflere göre tespit edildiği genellikle ilgili bölümde dipnot olarak belirtilmektedir. 80/1268/EEC direktifi yakıt tüketimi değerleri: Laboratuar ortamında ve belirli koşullarda yapılan testlerde elde edilen, l/100 km mertebesinde sonuçları göstermektedir. Bu direktife göre: Şehir içi yakıt tüketimi, laboratuar ortamında soğuktan çalıştırılmış motor ile 4 km'lik teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 50 km/h ve ortalama 19 km/h hızla ölçülmüş yakıt tüketim değerlerdir. Şehir dışı yakıt tüketimi ise şehir içi ölçümünden hemen sonra gerçekleştirilen, 7 km'lik teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 120 km/h hıza ulaşacak şekilde, yarı zamanlı sabit hız ve yarı zamanlı değişken hızla ölçülmüş yakıt tüketim değerleridir. Birleşik/Karma tüketim değeri ise şehir içi ve şehir dışı testlerinin kat edilen mesafe ölçüsüyle ağırlıklı ortalaması alınarak hesaplanmaktadır. Karma yakıt tüketimi; otomobil yaklaşık %37 normal şehir içi trafikte ve yaklaşık %63 şehir dışı trafikte kullanılarak elde edilir.
Well-to-Wheel Efficiency The above fuel efficiencies are also called tank-to-wheel efficiencies. This does not reflect the losses during the refining and distribution. It is sometimes easier to compare the overall fuel efficiencies of conventional vehicles and EVs. For gasoline, this efficiency is 83%, which reflects a lumped efficiency from the refining and distribution of gasoline. For electricity generation, this efficiency is 30.3%, which reflects a lumped efficiency that includes electricity generation of 32.8% (assume electricity is generated from gasoline) and distribution of electricity at 92.4%. Charge efficiency of the battery also needs to be reflected [9]. Thus, where η electricity =30.3 and η gasoline =83%, and subscript ICEV stands for Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle. Example 4: A car of 30 MPG will have a well-to-wheel fuel efficiency of 24 MPG, and an EV that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have a well-to-wheel efficiency of 42.5 MPG. Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PHEV Fuel Economy For PHEVs, it is usually confusing as to which number should be used. Here, we discuss two different scenarios: all-electric capable PHEVs and blended PHEVs. For all-electric capable PHEVs, it is useful to indicate the electric range, in miles or kilometers, and associated energy consumption during that range, in kilowatt hours/mile, and potentially gas equivalent MPG. Another set of numbers is needed to show the MPG during CS mode driving. A suggested label is shown in Figure 4. For blended PHEVs, since there is no pure electric driving range, it is useful to label the fuel economy in CD and CS mode separately as shown in Figure 5. It may be preferred to include the electric energy consumption during CD mode as well. Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PHEV Fuel Economy Figure 4: Fuel economy labeling for all-electric-capable PHEV Figure 5: Fuel economy labeling for blended PHEV Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Electrification Conventional Hybrid Battery Electric Fuel Battery Fuel Battery Engine Motor/ Generator Engine Motor/ Generator Transmission Transmission Transmission Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Energy Loss : City Driving Standby 8% Aero 3% Fuel Tank 100% Engine 16% 13% Driveline Rolling 4% Engine Loss 76% Driveline Losses 3% Braking 6% POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance 2005 3 L Toyota Camry Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Energy Loss : Highway Driving Standby 0% Aero 10% Fuel Tank: 100% Engine 23% 19% Driveline Rolling 7% Engine Loss 77% Driveline Losses 4% Braking 2% POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related Highway Drive Cycle Energy Balance 2005 3 L Toyota Camry Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Energy Saving : Hybrid Systems Micro Hybrid Eliminates Standby 8% Aero 3% Fuel Tank: 100% Engine 16% 13% Driveline Rolling 4% Engine Loss 76% Driveline Losses 3% Braking 6% Full Hybrid Reduces Plug-in Engine downsizing Decoupling of engine and wheel Can eliminate engine entirely Mild Hybrid Reduces Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Energy Loss : City Driving Electric Vehicle Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance Batteries 100% Motor 90% 76% Driveline Aero 29% Rolling 35% Motor Loss 10% Driveline Losses 14% Braking 11% POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Well-to-Wheels Efficiency Well-to-Tank Generation 33% Transmission 94% 31% Tank-to-Wheels Plug-to-Wheels 76% 23% 31% 76% = 23% Refining 82% Source: http://www.nesea.org Transmission 98% Pump-to-Wheels 16% 80% 13% 80% 16% = 13% [http://www.nesea.org/]] Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
EV vs. ICEV Well-to-Wheel Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Challenges Why do t they catch o? A co spiracy?
Gasoline: The (almost) perfect fuel Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/energy_density
Energy Equivalency Gas 1 Gallon 135 MJ of energy Batteries 21 Li-ion batteries (Car battery size) 2.7 kg 340 kg 54 gal
Challenges Limited Range Large battery weight/size Long charge times High initial cost Battery life Consumer acceptance Grid Integration
Operating Costs In Europe, $60/barrel oil is enough, In the US, $4/gal gas is needed to be price competitive
Addressing customer perception Accepting limited range Most people drive less than 40 mi/day Most cars are parked 23 hours of the day anyway Smaller vehicles & reduced performance In the last 30 years, nearly 100% of efficiency improvements have gone to increasing vehicle size and performance, not reducing consumption How do you get people to charge at the right time? Source: On the Road in 2035, Heywood, et.al.
KIYASLAMA VE HESAPLAMA İÇİN, KONVANSİYONEL YAKITLAR, FİYAT VE DEĞERLER
Operating Costs Battery Electric Vehicle On-board energy consumption 300 Wh/mile Charging Efficiency 90% Electricity consumption 333 Wh/mile Electricity Cost 10 cents/mile Driving Cost (electricity only) 3.3 cents/mile Conventional Gasoline Vehicle Fuel economy 25 MPG Fuel Cost $2.00/gallon Driving Cost (fuel only) 8.0 cents/mile At 15,000 miles/year, you would save $700/year on fuel The estimated price range for advanced batteries is $500 - $1,000 per kwh ~ buying 1 kwh of battery energy (~3 miles of electric range) each year
CO2 Emissions
Elektrikli Araç Akü kapasitesi 24 kwh(iyi durumda batarya) (0.25kWh/kg) Elektrik Motor verimi (ortalama): %85 Tekerleğe aktarılan enerji: 20.4 kwh Düz yolda ortalama güç: 20.4 kw Ortalama hız: 130 km/h Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 130 km Benzinli Araç Depo hacmi: 45 l Özgül Ağırlık: 0.75 kg/l Benzin ağırlığı: 33.75 kg Benzin enerji yoğunluğu: 45MJ/kg Toplam enerji yaklaşık: 1520MJ= 422kWh Tekerleğe aktarılan (verim %20 kabul edilerek): 84.4 kwh Düz yolda ortalama güç : 20.4 kw Ortalama hız: 130 km/h Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 537 km (EV den yaklaşık 4 kat fazla) Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Benzinli Araç Enerji Tüketimi = Ortalama Tüketim x Enerji Yoğunluğu Enerji Tüketimi = 0.076 l/km x 32 MJ/l = 2.4 MJ/km = 0.667 kwh/km Mekanik Verim %20 alınırsa: 2.4 MJ/km x 0.2 = 0.48 MJ/km Elektrikli Araç Doldurma/boşaltma verimi: %86 Elektrik motoru verimi (ortalama): %85 Enerji tüketimi: 0.48 MJ/km/ (0.85 x 0.86) = 0.65 MJ/km Geri kazanımlı frenleme ile enerji tüketimi bir miktar azalacaktır. Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
ELEKTRİKLİ ARACIN EKONOMİKLİĞİ OTOPARKTA ŞARJ E i izde. kwh/gü =. kwh/gü =2204 kwh/yıl Elektrikli araç: kwh/ ıl: Elektrikli araç içi. k = TL Otopark ü reti: şarj/ ıl TL/gü = TL Hiz et Bedeli: şarj/ ıl, TL/gü = TL Toplam: 1350 TL Be zi li araç: Be zi li ir araç lt/ k =, = TL Yaklaşık %100 tasarruf EVDE ŞARJ Elektrikli araç: kwh/ ıl: Elektrikli araç içi 11.000 km = 600 TL + 200 TL sa a i farkı Toplam: 800 TL Be zi li araç: Be zi li ir araç lt/ k = 7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL Yaklaşık %280 tasarruf Fatura Bilgisi: 139 kwh =37,8 TL (1 kwh = 0,27 TL); Tarih: 20/11/2010
Meeting the Challenges
Looking Forward Tipping point will be ~2020 when 10% of vehicles sold ill e BEV s Battery cost: ~$700-$1,500 / kwh, down to $420 by 2015, but still too high. Price Premium PHEV40 $11,800 > ICE EV100 $24,100 > ICE Long-ter PHEV s ill eat out HEV s PHEV s likel to do i ate BEVs A 30-50% reduction in fuel consumption by 2035 *Heywood 47% reduction by 2030 *McKinsey Source: McKinsey Quarterly: Electrifying Cars: How three industries will evolve ; http://newenergynews.blogspot.com/2009/08/mckinsey-looks-at-coming-ev-phenomenon.html