THE POPULAR PRESS HOLDINGS IN THE MIDDLE EAST DEPARTMENT

THE POPULAR PRESS HOLDINGS IN THE MIDDLE EAST DEPARTMENT JOSEPH REGENSTEIN LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Introduction: Survey of the Popular Press in the Islamic World 1 I. Arabic 25 II. Armenian, Azeri, Georgian, Kurdish and Russian 44 III. English, French and Hebrew 46 IV. Persian 54 V. Ottoman / Turkish 107 Appendices: 163 Persian Newspapers published in India, Middle Eastern Newspapers at CRL, Middle Eastern Newspapers Currently Received by the Library Official Gazettes in the Middle East Department Select bibliographies are included at the end of each section. Though compilation of this list was stopped in the mid 1990s, we believe it remains useful to library patrons as it contains information about materials that are not in the library catalog and thus can be found no other way. In the years since, new materials have been acquired, some uncataloged materials have been cataloged, and some items have been moved. It is important to communicate with the Middle East Department to determine how to access materials especially those listed as uncataloged. For further information, please consult a staff member in the Middle East Department office, JRL 560 (open Monday through Friday, 9AM to 5PM), or contact Marlis Saleh (details at http://guides.lib.uchicago.edu/mideast).

Middle Eastern Popular Press 1 1. INTRODUCTION: SURVEY OF THE POPULAR PRESS IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD. Background: The introduction of a popular newspaper and serial press to the Islamic world came with the introduction of the western newspaper form itself, in part a product of 18th century European, particularly French, influence on the Ottoman government in Istanbul, and Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798 1801. The rapid development of newspaper and serial publications in the Islamic world reflects the growing local sense of awareness of European culture, nationalism, and popular interest in political and cultural affairs on a public level which characterized the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. (Brief accessible surveys of the popular press in the Islamic world are to be found in the article "Djarida" in the first and second editions of the Encyclopedia of Islam, and in the article "Basın" in the Türk Ansiklopedisi.) The relatively late adoption of moveable type printing by the Arabs, Persians, and Turks is an interesting chapter in the history of printing and book production, a history in which the Islamic world had earlier played a critical role. The craft of paper making came to Europe by way of the Islamic World. The Arabs may have acquired the technique from Chinese prisoners taken at Samarkand by the Arabs in 704. Eventually papermaking spread into Europe through Muslim Spain sometime during the 13th and 14th centuries. Undoubtedly one of the most literary of the world's cultures, large numbers of books and documents were produced on paper by scribes in the Islamic world from the early centuries of Islam. Yet when printing technology finally reached the Middle East it was initially slow to take hold and spread. Block printing in the Islamic world dates from the 10th century and, like paper making, came first to the Middle East, and was introduced from there to Europe. Use of wood block printing in the Islamic world seems to have been only sporadic however, limited to brief portions of the Koran, some official communications, playing cards, and one instance of paper money during Ilkhanid rule in Iran. Moveable metal type was a European invention later introduced into the Islamic world via European language presses established first in İstanbul in the 15th 16th century. A Koran was printed in Venice between 1485 1499. Non Muslim religious minorities established non Arabic script presses, and produced the first printed texts in the Ottoman Empire. Various explanations have been advanced to explain the relative lateness of the acceptance of Arabic script printing in the Muslim World including a belief in the religious importance of the Arabic script itself, and the possibility of a monopoly held by the scribal class. The first Arabic script press in the Middle East was established in İstanbul by Ibrāḥīm Müteferrika, who produced a number of books during the eighteenth century. By the end of the 18th century, the Ottoman government was aware of the use of the press made by the French government through the establishment of a French press in İstanbul in the 1790's, which produced official bulletins and communiques. In 1796 the Gazette française de Constantinople began publication, the first newpaper to be established in the Middle East. In 19th century Egypt and Iran lithography became widespread before the extensive adoption of moveable type to print books. It was the Europeans who first introduced the newspaper, on moveable type Arabic script presses, to the Muslim world during the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt. The French brought out several French newspapers during their occupation of 1798 1801 and for a brief period printed, with the Arabicscript presses they had brought with them, official proclamations and the first Arabic script newspaper al Tanbīh. In the early part of the 19th century French newspapers appeared in Morocco and in Izmir.

2 Middle Eastern Popular Press Popular Press in the Middle East: It was in the Egypt of Muḥammad ʿAlī in the 1820's that the publication of the first regular Arabic serial began al Waqāʾiʿ al Miṣrīyah (microfm. JQ37 RR5; UC holdings 1961 1966; 1970 1971). It was published at various frequencies in Arabic and briefly in Turkish as the official organ of Muḥammad ʿAlī's government and the sole newspaper in Egypt during the period of his rule. During Ismāʿīl's reign al Waqāʾiʿ al Miṣrīyah was published daily under the editorship of Muḥammad ʿAbduh (1849 1905). It attained importance beyond its role as an official organ, as a newpaper in its own right containing foreign news items and editorials as well as official orders and decrees. (Numbers prior to 1840 are lost; it has continued to the present day.) Similar official government publications began in Ottoman İstanbul in the 1830's with the introduction of the Moniteur ottoman and Takvim i Vekaʿyi ( microfc. RR5; UC holdings 1831 1849; 1909 1910), both in 1831, the latter published as the official organ of the Ottoman government until 1922, when it was supplanted by the new Republican government's Resmi Gazete (J7.T1A4 RR5; UC holdings complete 1922 present). The Ottoman government policy of establishing official papers in each province gave impetus to the publication of similar official gazettes in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Privately owned newspapers followed the appearance of these official publications. The first privately produced newspaper, Ceride i Havadis, was founded in Istanbul in 1840 by the Englishman, William Churchill. Published in Ottoman Turkish, it was mainly commercial in purpose but also contained articles and features, the writing of which provided an apprenticeship in journalism to a number of Turkish literati. In the 1850's private newspapers printed in Arabic were established in Ottoman Beirut, some with the backing of the Ottoman government. The first important independent Arabic newspaper was the pro Ottoman al Jawāʾib, which was founded in İstanbul by the Lebanese Aḥmad Fāris al Shidyāq in 1860 (microfm. AP95.4 RR5; UC holdings: 1868 1872). It attained widespread circulation in the Arab world during the course of its lifetime, and was the first Arabic paper to attain world wide circulation. The establishment of privately owned newspapers marked the beginning of an efflorescence of newspaper publishing in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish in the latter half of the 19th century. These newspapers brought to the forefront issues such as nationalism, secularism, anti colonialism and Islamic fundamentalism which were current at the time. They played an important role in the evolution of Middle Eastern political and cultural life, and remain a valuable source for the study of the history and culture of that period. However, expression of anti government views often resulted in censorship and led to the closing of some of these newspapers, as well as to the movement of newspapers and journalists to more tolerant locations. Ottoman censorship brought to Egypt a number of talented journalists who played a major role in the development of the popular press there and, later, throughout the Islamic world. Journalists who had begun their careers in the Ottoman provinces of Syria and Lebanon were forced to move to the relatively freer climate of Egypt under the descendants of Muḥammad ʿAlī and later under the British occupation. However, about 1890, the expression of anti British nationalist views forced the British to exert stronger control over the opposition press in Egypt. Egypt: In 1876, the Lebanese exiles Salīm and Bishāra Taklā founded the newspaper al Ahrām (microfm. AN95.2; UC holdings: microfm. AN95 2) in Alexandria. Initially pro Ottoman, it remains one of the most important and influential newspapers in the Arab world today. The latter half of the nineteenth century witnessed the growth of newspapers and journals in Egypt representing various political and religious points of view: Muslim, Christian, pro Ottoman, pro

Middle Eastern Popular Press 3 western, pro British, pro reform, and nationalist, among which were the nationalist Abū Naẓẓārah 1878 1910 (DT43 f.a32; UC holdings: complete 1878 1910) founded by Yaʿqūb Ṣannūʿ and later moved to Paris, al Iʿlām, Cairo 1885 1889 (microfm. AN95 19 RR5; UC holdings: 1885 1889), and al Bayān, Cairo 1897 98 (microfm. AP95.A6B4; UC holdings: complete 1897 1898). The bimonthly review al Muqtaṭaf (microfc. PJ3; UC holdings: 1876 1952) was founded in Beirut in 1877 before being transferred to Cairo, and the pro British al Muqaṭṭam (microfm. AN95.30; UC holdings: 1940 1952), established in 1889 by Mssrs. Ṣarrūf Nimr Maqāryus, stood in opposition to al Ahrām. The anti reform and traditionalist Islamic paper al Muʿayyad (microfm. AN95.29; UC holdings: 1907 1914), founded in 1890 by Shaykh Yūsuf ʿAlī, heralded the appearance of a number of similar newspapers reflecting conservative religious views. Nationalist papers which professed views in opposition to the British occupation included Miṣr, edited by Adīb Isḥāq, al Liwāʾ edited by Muṣṭafā Kāmil, and al Jarīdah (microfm. AN95 21; UC holdings: 1909 1913). By 1910 almost 150 newspapers were being published in Egypt. In addition to newspapers, a number of important literary, scientific, and religious reviews were published among which were al Hilāl founded in Cairo by Jūrjī Zaydān in 1892 and still published today (PJ7801.A2H52 RR5; UC holdings: complete 1892 ); al Muqtabas (AP95.A6M8 RR5; UC holdings: 1908 1914) published by Muḥammmad Kurd 'Alī in Cairo and Damascus from 1908 to 1917; and al Mashriq in Beirut (AP95.A6M33 RR5; UC holdings: 1898 1942, 1947 ). The influential Shiite intellectual and religious review al ʿIrfān which began publication in Sidon, Lebanon in 1909 continues today in Beirut (AP95.A6I67; UC holdings: 1933 1934). Egyptian newspapers in the early 20th century vigorously reflected a variety of political views until the suspension of the political press during the Egyptian revolution in 1952. In 1960 press ownership in Egypt reverted to private hands. Although newspapers have since then, in the main, reflected the official government line, distinctions have begun to emerge. Increased freedom of the press during the Sadat era allowed existing newspapers aligned with the religious right to flourish and also resulted in the appearance of a number of new periodicals representing opposition opinions, ranging from those of groups on the religious right to the socialists. Among these periodicals were al Daʿwah (published 1951 81; microfc. RR5; UC holdings: 1976 81), al Iʿtiṣām (published 1939 ; microfc. RR5; UC holdings: 1977 81), al Taṣawwuf al Islāmī (1979 ; microfc. RR5; UC holdings: 1979 82), and al Tawḥīd (1971 ; microfc. RR5; UC holdings: 1973 81), aligned with the Islamic right. On the left, al Ahālī (1979 ) represented the al Tajammuʿ party, Jarīdat al Shaʿb (1979 ; microfm. RR5; UC holdings: 1979 81) was published by the Egyptian Labor party, and al Aḥrār represented the al Aḥrār al Ishtirākīyūn Party. Lebanon, Syria and Palestine: The Levantine provinces of the Ottoman Empire were, in the 19th century, another center for the production of newspapers in Arabic. The first major Arabic paper, al Bashī, which was established in Beirut in 1869 by the Jesuits, continued publishing there until recently. Members of the Bustānī family published various titles in the 1870's and 1880's. In 1877 Khalīl Sarkīs, son in law of Butrus al Bustānī, brought out the daily Lisān al Ḥāl, (1877 1932; microfm. RR5; UC holdings: 1877 1914, 1918 1932), itself vaguely pro Ottoman and generally avoiding political contoversy. Other papers reflected the variety of confessional groups that made up levantine society Sunnī and Shiʿī Islamic, Maronite and Orthodox Christian. Syria's first printed publications resulted from the Ottoman government's policy that each vilayet should have its own newspaper. Arabic newspaper publication in Palestine began with the founding of al Karmal in Haifa in 1908 (published until 1934; microfm. RR5; UC holdings: 1920 1934) by Najīb Naṣṣār, an Orthodox Christian, and al Karmal al jadīd (1934 1939, microfm. RR5; UC holdings:

4 Middle Eastern Popular Press complete 1934 1939). In 1911 ʿIsā al ʿIsā established the paper Falasṭīn (microfm. AN95 15 RR2 & microfm. RR5; UC holdings: 1911 1967) in Jaffa, the first Palestinian newspaper to go daily, which it did in 1929. These earliest Palestinian newspapers reflect local concern with the implications of Jewish immigration into Ottoman Palestine. Many publications were surpressed by the Ottoman authorities during the First World War. Post war Palestinian newspapers of the British Mandate period include: The Palestine Weekly 1919 1931 ( microfm. RR5; UC holdings: complete 1919 1931) and The Palestine Bulletin (1925 1932; microfm. RR5; UC holdings: complete 1925 1932). Newspapers were established in Iraq and the Arabian penninsula during the Ottoman occupation. The Ottoman governor Midḥat Pāshā set up the first newspaper in Iraq, al Zawrāʾ, in 1868. In the Arabian penninsula, Ṣanʿāʾ was established in 1877 and al Ḥijāz in Mecca in 1908, al Qiblah was published in Mecca from 1916 1924 (microfm. AN95 RR5; UC holdings: complete 1916 1924), and Sawṭ al Ḥijāz, in Mecca, from 1932 1941 (microfm. AN95 33.8 RR5; UC holdings: complete 1932 1941). Arabic Press Abroad: The Arabic press abroad developed in part as a reaction to difficulties in the Middle East in the late 19th century. Many Lebanese and Syrians fled from the difficult economic and political circumstances of the last years of Ottoman occupation. They sought opportunities in Europe and North and South America. A community of Syrian Christians flourished in New York during the early part of the 20th century and produced a number of Arabic newspapers and journals among which were al Kawn, published 1907 1909 in New York (microfm. AN95 24 RR5; UC holdings: complete 1907 1909), al Ṣāʾiḥ, first published in New York in 1912 (microfm. AN95 33.7 RR5; UC holdings: complete 1912 1957) and al Funūn, also in New York (1913 1918; PJ7501.F94; UC holdings: complete 1913 1918). ʿUrwah al Wuthqā was published in Paris in 1884 by Jamal al Dīn al Afghanī and Muḥammad ʿAbduh (DT107.3.U83; UC holdings: complete 1884). Iran: Since the first experiments with lithography in Tabriz in 1817, the Iranian popular press was developed by two major patrons: (1) the state, and (2) expatriate Iranians. In the 19th century, the growing bureaucracy of the Qājār dynasty (1796 1925) was the primary publisher of popular press periodicals, starting with the official gazette, Rūznāmah ʾi Vaqāyiʿ i Ittifāqīyah [Chronicle of Events] in 1851, which was the first newspaper of the present form and arrangement in Iran. Rūznāmah ʾi Vaqāyiʿ i Ittifāqīyah ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1851 1864) was founded in the third year of the reign of Nāṣir al Dīn Shāh (1848 1896) by the command of Mīrzā Taqī Khān Amīr Kabīr. At the beginning of the 1860s, the first illustrated Persian newspaper was published with the portraits of the notables of the Qājār court. The name of this illustrated newspaper, Rūznāmah ʾi Dawlat i ʿĀlīyah ʾi Īrān, was later changed to Rūznāmah ʾi Dawlatī [State Gazette]. A few years later, another newspaper, entitled Rūznāmah ʾi Millatī, was published in Tehran. The idea of popular press was welcomed in other parts of the country. In 1872 3, the newspaper, Fārs, was published in Shiraz, and under the care of Mīrzā Taqī Khān of Kāshān, the newspaper, Farhang [Culture], was printed and published in Isfahan. In the same year, the newspaper entitled Tabrīz was founded in Tabriz. The first daily newspaper, Khulāṣat al Ḥawādith [Summary of Events], was printed in Tehran in 1898 9.

Middle Eastern Popular Press 5 Being an authoritarian state, the Qājār dynasty did not look favorably upon criticism in the popular press. The editors of the newspapers were not completely free to publish. However, with the outbreak of the Constitutional Revolution (1905 6) and by the time that the Constitutional Revolution was adopted at the end of 1906, the censorship system had gradually collapsed. As a result, a large number of individuals began to issue newspapers. Four daily newspapers began to appear under the names of the Majlis [Assembly] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1906 1908), Nidā yi Vaṭan (Cry of the Homeland) ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1906 1909), Ḥabl al Matīn [The Firm Bond] (fan305.t3h2 RR5 (cage) and microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1900 1901, 1907 1908), and Ṣubḥ i Ṣādiq. Among these four papers, Ḥabl al Matīn and Ṣubḥ i Ṣādiq provided varied and well written articles. The idea of the freedom of the press, which came with the Constitutional Revolution, made a huge impact on publication in Iran. Newspapers like Ṣūr i Isrāfīl [Seraphʾs Trumpet] (AP95.S8 RR5 (cage) and microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1907 1909), published in Tehran in 1907, and Īrān i Naw [New Persia] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1909 1911), edited and published by Sayyid Maḥmūd Shabistarī Āzarbāyjānī (Abū al iyā'), after the disposition of Muḥammad ʿAlī Shāh in 1909, set journalistic standards with their fiery editorial rhetoric and political activism. The Constitutional Period (1906 1911) also saw the arrival of the first Iranian magazine produced for women, Dānish [Knowledge] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1910 1911), founded in Tehran in 1910 by the wife of Mīrzā Ḥusayn Khān Kaḥḥāl. During the Constitutional period, numerous satirical papers also began to appear. The first satirical newspaper was Ṭūtī, published in Bushihr in 1900 1, edited by ʿAbd al Ḥamīd Khān Matīn al Salṭanah. After this comic paper came the newspaper Āzarbāyijān ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1907), published by ʿAlī Qulī Khān, known as Safaroff, formerly editor of Iḥtiyāj, in Tabriz in 1907 8. The most popular satirical papers were Kashkūl, (Tehran, 1907 1908) ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1907 1908), Tanbīh [Punishment], Ḥasharāt al Arẕ [The insects of the earth] (Tabriz, 1909), Buhlūl (Tehran, 1911), Shaydā, and Shaykh Chughundar [The Reverend Beetroot] (Tehran, 1911). The satirical column in the newspaper, Ṣūr i Isrāfīl, which was written by Mīrzā ʿAlī Akbar Khān Dihkhudā under the heading ʿCharand va Parand [Nonsensical talk],ʾ became very popular. Judging by its circulation, the newspaper, Ṣūr i Isrāfīl, was the most popular newspaper of the time. It was banned repeatedly, but the controversy generated by the repeated banning of the paper benefited its circulation. Two other newspapers are also worth mentioning in this period: Musāvāt ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1907 1908), and Rūḥ al Qudus (1907 1908) (fjq1782.t8; 1984 reprint edition). These two newspapers attracted readers with their personal attacks on the Qājār court; however, they were not as successful as Ṣūr i Isrāfīl whose success was chiefly owing to Dihkhudāʾs satirical column, without indulging in the inventive attacks characteristic of the other two papers. Besides the educated intellectuals, semi literate mullas also turned to journalism. Among these mullas, Sayyid iyā al Dīn Ṭabāṭabāʾī published Nidā yi Islām (Cry of Islam) as an orthodox religious guide in the political life of the country. Aware of the growing influence of newspapers, the court officials began to publish their own newspapers to discredit the progressive press. Three newspapers championed autocracy. These were the newspapers Uqyānūs [The Ocean] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1908), Fikr [Thought] and the Turkish language newspaper Āy Mullā ʿAmū. The editors of most of these newspapers were unsuccessful to win over popular support, except Shaykh Faẕl Allāh Nūrī, who issued his anti constitutionalist publications, known as Rūznāmah ʾi Shaykh Faẕl Allāh Nūrī, in 1907 from his sanctuary in the shrine of Ḥaẕrat i Shāh ʿAbd al ʿAẓīm. To avoid censorship and reprisal, a number of Iranians began producing periodicals elsewhere in Asia and in the Middle East in particular. Akhtar [The Star] began publishing in Istanbul in 1875.

6 Middle Eastern Popular Press Ḥabl al Matīn began publishing in Calcutta in 1892. In Cairo, Iranians produced Ḥikmat [Wisdom] in 1890 ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1899), Surayyā [The Pleiades] in 1898 and Parvarish [Nurture] in 1900. The Iranian expatriate press in Europe began with the newspaper Qanūn [The Law] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1890 1893), which was published by the opportunistic, reforming bureaucrat Mīrzā Malkam Khān Nāẓim al Dawlah, in London in 1890. Among all the newspapers, published either antecedent to the Constitutional Revolution or subsequent to the Revolution, Qānūn, Surayyā, Ḥabl al Matīn and Parvarish were the best in terms of literary style. Musāvāt and Rūḥ al Qudus were the boldest in their language. The best satirical and the most amusing were the Charand va Parand column of the Ṣūr i Isrāfīl, the literary column of the newspapers Sharq [The East] and Nasīm i Shumāl [Breeze of the North], edited by Sayyid Ashraf of Gilan, and the newspapers Āẕarbāyijān, Kashkūl, Ḥasharāt al Arẕ and Buhlūl. The finest newspapers in terms of illustration were Sharāfat, Sharaf (fap95.p3s521 RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1882 1891), Adab and Āẕarbāyijān. Under Muẓaffar al Dīn Shāh (1896 1907), a new trend started in Tabriz: the principals of newlyestablished schools, based on modernist ideas, sought permission to issue publications to encourage parents to enroll their children. In Tehran, this idea was also welcomed; Mīrzā Ḥasan Rushdīyah published Maktab, Nāẓim al Islām Kirmānī published Nawrūz ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1903 1904), and Anjuman i Maʿārif published Maʿārif. The years after the Constitutional era of 1906 1911, between 1912 and 1917, mark the end of the period of relative freedom of press in Iran. By the beginning of World War I, the Iranian popular press reflected its official, expatriate and constitutional influences. The First World War aggravated the politically volatile atmosphere in Iran with foreign invasions and tribal rebellions, and a number of intellectuals outside Iran began to consider questions of culture and politics to remedy the problems that vexed Iranian society. In Berlin, Kāvah (1916) (PK57 microfm. RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1916 1920), edited by Sayyid Ḥasan Taqīzādah, and Īrānshahr (1922) (AP95.I73 RR5 (cage)) began clamoring for cultural and national revival. With the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917, which came as a godsend to Iran, some of these sentiments abroad were echoed by periodicals produced in Iran such as Muḥammad Taqī Malik al Shuʿarāʾ Bahārʾs Dānishkadah [The College] (1918) ( microfm. N47 JRL 505), Vaḥīd Dastgirdiʾs Armaghān [Gift] (1919), Saʿīd Nafīsīʾs Sharq [The East] (1924) and Maḥmūd Afshārʾs Āyandah [The Future] (1925). Other papers with titles reflecting the earnest nationalism of the times emerged with such names as Tajaddud [Renewal] and Kūshish [Endeavor] ( microfm. RR5 (cage)). One hundred twentyfive newspapers and forty periodicals were being published in this period. However, the number dropped drastically when Riẕā Shāh came to power in 1925. By the time he was forced to abdicate in 1941, the number of newspapers and periodicals had reached less than 50. Between the years 1941 and 1953, when Muṣaddiqʾs nationalist government fell, the Iranian press was revived. In less than a year, the number of newspapers and journals rose from 50 in 1941 to 464. This period saw the flourishing of newspapers such as Mardum [The people] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1942 1949), published by the Ḥizb i Tūdah, Iranʾs Communist Party. A number of newspapers, such as Āsiyā [Asia] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1954), and Bākhtar i Imrūz [Todayʾs East] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1950 1953), edited by Ḥusayn Fāṭimī, devoted attention to the issue of oil nationalization. Among the popular newspapers and periodicals of this era, the most satirical ones were Arjang [The sacred book of Manicheanism], Umīd [Hope] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1942 1946), Tawfīq [Success] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1957 1970), founded by Ḥusayn Tawfīq in 1927, Ḥallāj [The cotton carder], Nasīm i Shumāl ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1942 1943), Hardanbīl [The easygoing one], Qalandar [The Sufi beggar], Yū Yū [The yo yo], and Bābā Shamal (fap95.p3b15 and microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1943 1944, 1947), an independent journal

Middle Eastern Popular Press 7 published by Riẕā Ganjiʾī from 1943 to the end of 1945 and from the end of 1947 to March 1948. Of the nine comic papers, the first five had begun publication shortly before 1941 and the remaining four were published after Riẕā Shāhʾs abdication. During Muṣaddiqʾs rule, when the oil industry was nationalized, six other journals began publication. These journals were Chalangar [The ironsmith], published by Muḥammad ʿAlī Afrāshtah, Lutī [The rouge], Shabchirāgh [The worldseeing lamp], Nūshkhand [The smirk], Dād va Bīdād [Justice and injustice], and Ḥājī Bābā, an unaffiliated journal resembling Bābā Shamal published by Parvīz Khatībī. Among these journals, the most successful were Ḥājī Bābā, Bābā Shamal, and Tawfīq. Ḥājī Bābā, of which 174 issues were published in a period of three years and a few months during the nationalization of the oil industry, was anti British. As a result, it was banned after the 1953 coup that toppled Muṣaddiqʾs government. Bābā Shamal, with its interesting cartoons, concentrated on political satire in the form of verses and topical interviews. Tawfīq, on the other hand, concentrated on political satire that had serious political overtones. Tawfīq, which had survived since 1927, ceased publication in early 1972. However, some of its contributors managed to continue their work by publishing the weekly Kārīkātūr [Caricature] in 1968. Another journal, Khandah [Laughter], survived the last years of the Muḥammad Riẕā Shāhʾs reign (1941 1979) when the government had gradually dominated the press and virtually no criticism would be tolerated. After the 1953 coup, such journals as Taraqqī [Progress], edited by Luṭf Allāh Taraqqī, Sipīd va Siyāh [White and Black] ( RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1958), Tihrān i Muṣavvar [The Illustrated Tehran] ( RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1978 1979), and Firdawsī ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1978 1979), had gained popularity, especially the column called Kashkīyāt [Nonsensical talk], written by Manūchihr Maḥjūbī, in Tihrān i Muṣavvar, later replaced by another column called Fuẕūl Āghāsī [The arch meddler], written by Nāṣir Khudāyār, in the same paper, and the column called Anqarīb [In no time], written by Īraj Pizishkzād for the journal Firdawsī. The two major daily newspapers during the Shahʾs time were Kayhān [The world] ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1976 1984), and Iṭṭilāʿāt [Information] (AN95 20.2 microfm. 2nd flr; UC holding: 1926 ), which both carefully avoided criticizing government policies and touchy political issues. Both Kayhān and Iṭṭilāʿāt have remained major daily newspapers after the 1979 Revolution, and the Islamic government has complete control over them. Before the 1979 Revolution, there were two popular journals for women: Zan i Rūz and Iṭṭilāʿāt i Bānuvān. Zan i Rūz ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1981 1996) has been able to continue publication after the Revolution under a different editor, and its views on women reflect those of the Islamic Republic. Besides Zan i Rūz, there have been two other journals produced for women since the 1979 Revolution: Zanān (HQ1735.2.A1Z27 Gen; UC holding: 1992 ), edited by Shahlā Shirkat, and Farzānah ( RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1993 ), a bilingual (Persian English) journal devoted to the field of womenʾs studies and edited by Maḥbūbah Ummī. For a short period of time, relative freedom was given to the press in Iran after the 1979 Revolution. A significant number of newspapers began publication. By June 1979, the number of periodicals of various political tendencies had risen to 222, of which 167 were newspapers and 55 were journals. The figure is very impressive although it includes periodicals printed and published outside Iran as well. The short period of the relative freedom of the press did not last very long, and two daily newspapers, Āyandigān ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1978 1979), and Payghām i Imrūz ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1973 1974, 1979), were closed down. In the same month, 22 more newspapers and magazines were shut down. However, the Islamic regime had not been able to gain complete control over the press until the seizure of the American Embassy in Tehran in November 1979 when a large number of newspapers and magazines were forced to close and their editors were exiled.

8 Middle Eastern Popular Press At the beginning of the 1980s, the number of Persian periodicals outside Iran grew drastically. Among the periodicals, which have continued publication, are such periodicals of high literary and cultural standards as Īrān Nāmah (PK6580.A1I68 RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1982 ), published by the Foundation for Iranian Studies, Majallah ʾi Īrān Shināsī (PK6401.M34 Gen; UC holding: 1989 ), published by the Kiyān Foundation, Rahāvard (DS251.R243 Gen; UC holding: 1982 ), published and edited by Ḥasan Shahbāz, and Daftar i Hunar ( RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1993 ), published by Bīzhan Asadīʾpūr. All of these journals are published in the United States. In Europe, the highly prestigious literary journal, Alifbā ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1982 1983) was published by the late Ghulām Ḥusayn Sāʿidī until November 1985. Another literary journal, Kitāb i Jumʿah ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1979 1980) was edited and published by the well known poet Aḥmad Shāmlū, but it ceased publication after a short period of time in 1980. The other prestigious literary journals, Chashmandāz (PK6401.C52 Gen; UC holding: 1986 ), edited by Nāṣir Pākdāman in France, and Faṣl i Kitāb ( RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1988 ), edited by Māsh Allāh Ājūdānī in England, are still being published. The satirical journals and newspapers, which were shut down in 1979, also resumed publication outside Iran immediately after their editors established themselves either in Europe or in the Unites States. In London, the satirical paper, Aṣghar Āghā (AP95.P3A8 Gen; microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1980 1982, 1989), originally appeared as Ṭāghūt, is currently edited and published by Hādī Khursandī, who began his career in 1970 with the daily newspaper, Iṭṭilāʿāt. Āhangar dar Tabʿīd [The blacksmith in exile], edited by the former contributors of Āhangar ( microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1979) is also published in London. Parvīz Khaṭībī also published Ḥājī Bābā for a while in 1981 82 in New York, but the paper has ceased publication since then. Since August 1979, especially after the seizure of the Americn Embassy in Tehran, political criticism has been very rare in Iran. Those editors or satirists, who have attempted to criticize the Islamic Regime or its policies, either have been put in jail or have been forced to close their papers and leave the country. The best example was the literary weekly Nigīn (AP95.P3N68 Gen; UC holding: 1965 1979), where the talented satirist, Saʿīdī Sīrjānī, published a continuous satirical story entitled Shaykh Ṣanʿān. After five consecutive issues, the weekly was closed down. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī was put in prison in Tehran where he died in 1994. Another example was the prestigious literary journal, Gardūn ( RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1990 1995), edited by the well known author ʿAbbās Maʿrūfī. A two year publication ban was imposed on Gardūn, and Maʿrūfīʾs license was taken away as well. Maʿrūfī himself was sentenced to 6 months in prison and 35 lashes. Later, his sentence was commuted, but he was forced to leave the country. He currently lives in Germany. The future of the press in Iran is bleak although the Islamic government allows such independent periodicals as Chīstā ( RR5 (cage); UC holding: 1980 ), Ādīnah (AP95.P3A3 Gen; and microfm. JRL 505; UC holding: 1985 ), Kilk (PK6401.K54 Gen; UC holding: 1990 ), Dunyā yi Shukhan (AP95.P3D84 Gen; microfm. N505, N14 JRL 505; UC holding; 1986 1989), and a few others to continue publication. Whether or not the independent progressive press in Iran will be allowed to publish freely without fear of reprisal and thereby influence future events in Iran remains to be seen. Turkey: As stated above the first Ottoman newspapers were the official Takvim i Vekayı and William Churchill's private paper, Ceride i Havadis (see above). The first Turkish owned newspaper was Tercüman ı Ahval (1861 1866), a weekly begun in 1860 by Çapanzade Agah Efendi and edited by the poet Şinasi. Competition between the two weeklies was fierce, and Churchill responded by publishing daily under the title Ruzname yi Ceride i Havadis (1840 1878; microfm. RR5; UC

Middle Eastern Popular Press 9 holdings: some 1863 1873). In 1861 Şinasi began his own daily newspaper, Tasvir i Efkar (1862 1871; RR5; UC holdings: 1864 1865), which featured articles by Namık Kemal. In 1864 the Ottoman government established its first press regulations, which remained in force until 1909. Under these new rules newspapers had to submit pre publication copies signed by the editor to the Press Directorate. The regulations also provided for trial of press offenses by the Meclis i Ahkam i Adliye. The government had a range of actions it could take against publications, ranging from official warnings to suspension or cancellation of licenses. Enforcement of these regulations declined until 1867 when Ali Paşa authorized action against the press if it was dictated by the public interest. This new interest in controlling the press was the result of the increase in criticism of the government by writers, especially those associated with the Genç Osmanlı, or Young Ottoman movement. In the wake of renewed government control of the press, many of the Young Ottomans fled to Europe where they began to publish again. Notable among this group were Ali Suawi, Namık Kemal, Ziya Paşa, and Agah Efendi. Ali Suawi revived his paper Muhbir (1867 1868) in London in 1867. Namık Kemal and Ziya Paşa also established an Ottoman language paper in London, Hürriyet (1868 1870). In 1869 Ali Suawi began Ulum (1870 1871) in Paris and was one of the earliest advocates of Turkish nationalism. Between 1868 and 1872 there was an increase in newspaper publishing activity in Turkey. Important papers of this period were Terakki (1868 1870; RR5; UC holdings: scattered issues), Basıret (1869 1908; micrcofm. RR5; UC holdings: 1871 1873), İbret (1872 1873), and Hadika (1869 1874; UC holdings: 1873 1874). This period also saw the emergence of humor magazines beginning with Diyojen ( RR5 and microfm. RR5; UC holdings: complete 1869 1872). This paper was initially published in Greek, then French and eventually in Ottoman Turkish. Another notable humor magazine begun in the same year was Teodor Kasap's Çıngıraklı Tatar (1873; microfc. RR5; UC holdings: complete 1873). Terakki was the first to publish a special supplement for women, Muhadderat, in 1868. İbret was one of the most important forums for liberal ideas under the leadership of Namık Kemal, Ebüzziyya Tevfik, and Reşad Nuri. Under Abdülhamid II censorship increased, despite the guarantee of freedom of the press under the 1876 Constitution. In 1877 supervision of the press was made a responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior. By 1878 the Ministries of Education and Police had joined the Ministry of the Interior in censoring publications. In 1881 the Inspection and Control Commission was established to oversee the press and carry out preventive censorship. Government censorship continued to increase during the 1880's and 1890's with the establishment of the Foreign Press Directorate (1885), and government controls on printing presses (1888) and booksellers (1894). Finally in 1897 the Ottoman government established the Commission for Examination of Compositions to act as a higher censorship authority. As before, increased censorship in the Ottoman Empire led to opposition papers being established abroad. Two of the leading ones were İstikbal (1879 1881, 1908 1911) in Geneva and Meşveret (1895 1908; RR5) in Paris. Important dailies within Turkey in this period included Sabah (1876; RR5; UC holdings: no. 181) and İkdam (1894 1928; UC holdings: 1909 1927). Another important development during this period was the appearance of Hanımlara Mahsus Gazete (1895 1908; UC holdings: 1895 1908), a weekly that published work by female writers. The 1908 Constitutional Revolution brought about a resurgence in the number of newspapers in the Ottoman Empire. The spirit of free press ended, however, after the 31 March Incident in 1909, when the Committee of Union and Progress solidified its control of the government and increased censorship. Major papers of this period were Millet (1908), Hürriyet (1908), İttifak (1908), and Tanın (1908 1924; RR5; UC holdings: scattered issues, 1915 24), edited by Tevfik Fikret, Hüseyin Kazım and Hüseyin Cahit. In 1913 Nuriye Uluiye and Emine Seher began Kadınlar

10 Middle Eastern Popular Press Dünyası (1913 1921; RR5; UC holdings: scattered issues, 1920 1921) as a daily newspaper oriented toward women. This paper later became a weekly and was an early promoter of women's rights. Important humor magazines of this era were Kalem (1908 1927; microfc. RR5; UC holdings: all published) and Djem/Cem (1910 1912, 1927 1929; PL291.D62 and RR5 and microfc. RR5; UC holdings: all published), both famous for their caricatures. The First World War witnessed the emergence of a new generation of journalists and editors who would be influential through the Republican period. Ahmed Emin (Yalman) and Hakki Tarik (Us) started the paper Vakit (1917 1928; RR5; UC holdings: scattered issues, 1918 1927) during this period, and Yunus Nadi began Yeni Gün (1918 1920; RR5; UC holdings: scattered issues, 1918 1919). Other İstanbul newspapers at the end of the War were Alemdar (1911 1921; RR5; UC holdings: scattered issues, 1918 1920), edited by Refi Cevat, and Mehmed Zekeriyya's Büyük Gazete (1926 1928, UC holdings: no. 70, 73 [1928]). The dawn of the Turkish Republic not only brought the establishment of new papers, it also brought about a change in location for major publications. Although there had been newspapers in other parts of the Empire, İstanbul had been the center for journalism in the Ottoman Empire. With the rise of the Republic, Anatolian publications achieved a new importance. In 1919 the paper İrade i Milliye (1919 1921; RR5; UC holdings: scattered issues) was founded as the official organ the Sivas Congress. In the same year Mustafa Kemal Paşa founded Hakimiyet i Milliye (1919 1928; RR5; UC holdings: scatered issues, 1920 1921) in Ankara. This important newspaper changed its name to Ulus in 1928. In 1923 Yunus Nadi founded Cumhuriyet in İstanbul, where the paper continues to publish today. The relationship of the government and the press also changed in the Republican period. The 1924 Constitution ended pre publication censorship, although the government retained the ability to suspend publications. A major problem arose with the switch to the Latin alphabet in 1928. The change to the new alphabet effectively made the majority of newspaper readers illiterate. Many papers changed over gradually, publishing in both alphabets in the same issue. Eventually government subventions helped newspapers weather the drop in readership. The popular press again played an important role in the politics of the post World War II period. Humor magazines were especially important as forums for criticsm of the government. Aziz Nesin and Sabahattin Ali's Markopaşa (1946 1947, 1948 1949; AP115.M37 and AP115.M38 RR5 and microfc. RR5; UC holdings: complete 1946 1949), and its subsequent incarnations (Merhumpaşa, Malumpaşa), were influential humor papers. Between 1950 1960 the newspaper Zafer was the organ of the Democrat party in Ankara and was influential in promoting its ideas. Overall, the press played an important role in the events that led to the 1960 military coup. In 1960 the paper Akşam ushered in a new era in Turkish journalism by publishing simultaneously in both Ankara and İstanbul, a practice that is the norm for Turkish papers today.

Middle Eastern Popular Press 11 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE POPULAR PRESS: (note: for select Bibliographies refer to end of each section of the main list.) General: Kaldy Nagy, "Beginning of the Arabic Letter Printing," in The Muslim East: Studies in Honour of Julius Germanus, Budapest: Loránd Eötvös University, 1974, pp. 201 211. DS42.4.M94 Press review literature: Arab Press Review [ RR5], Cairo Press Review [ RR5 (current issues only); available 1963 present at Center for Research Libraries (on LC microfilm)], Diplomatic Pulse [DR593.P94 Gen; ub: RR5], Foreign Broadcast Information Service (Daily report. Middle East and Africa) [microfc. DS24]. Selim, George Dimitri, Arab world newspapers in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., 1980. Z6957.S46 RR5 Library Catalogues: Foreign Newspapers Held by The Center for Research Libraries. Compiled by Kristine Smets and Adriana Pilecky Dekajlo (in 2 vols.) Chicago: The Center for Research Libraries, 1992.Note: vol. 1 lists all newspaper holdings alphabetically by title; vol. 2 lists titles under alphabetically arranged country headings. Z6945.C43 1992 RR5 (SOA), RR Arab World: Egypt Cairo. Dār al Kutub al Miṣrīyah. Fihris al dawrīyāt al ʿArabīyah, allatī taqtanihā al Dār [al Kutub], 2 vols., Cairo, 1961 63. Z6944.A7C17 RR5 ʿAbd al Ḥamīd, Maḥmūd, al Ṣiḥāfah al ʿaskarīyah fi Miṣr, Cairo, 1982. PN4784.M5A2 1982 Khalīfah, Ijlāl, al Ṣiḥāfah, Cairo, 1976. PN4731.K45 Khūrī, Yūsuf Q. Mudawwanat al Siḥāfah al ʿArabīyah, vol. 1: Miṣr. Beirut: Maʿhad al Inmāʾ al ʿArabī, 1985. Z6957.K58 v.1 pt.1 RR5 Sālim, Laṭīfah Muḥammad. Ṣiḥāfah wa al ḥarakah al waṭanīyah al Miṣrīyah, 1945 52, Cairo: al Hayʾah al Miṣrīyah al ʿĀmmah lil Kitāb, 1987. PN5462.S21 1987 Wassef, Amin Sami, L'information et la presse officielle en Égypte jusqu'a la fin de l'occupation française, Cairo: IFAO, 1975. PN5462.W32 Iraq Albin, Michael W., Printing in Mesopotamia from its Origins until 1914, unpublished M.L.S. thesis University of Chicago, 1973. Z10999

12 Middle Eastern Popular Press Ibrāhīm, Zāhidah, Kashshāf al Jarāʾid wa al majallāt al ʿIrāqīyah, 1869 1978, Baghdad, 1982. Z3036.I18 RR5 Lebanon Cioeta, Donald J., "Ottoman Censorship in Lebanon and Syria, 1876 1908", International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 10 (1979), pp. 167 186. DS41.I64 v.10 Dāghir, Yūsuf Asʿad. Qāmūs al Ṣiḥāfah al Lubnānīyah, 1858 1974. Beirut: Manshūrāt al Jāmiʿah al Lubnānīyah, 1978. 526+26 pp. Z6958.L3D3 1978 Khūrī, Yūsuf Q. Mudawwanat al Ṣiḥāfah al ʿArabīyah, vol. 3: Lubnān. Beirut: Maʿhad al Inmāʾ al ʿArabī, 1985. Z6957.K58 RR5 Reid, Donald M., The Odyssey of Farah Antun, Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1975. PN5463.A64R35 Palestine Khūrī, Yūsuf Q. al Ṣiḥāfah al ʿArabīyah fī Filasṭīn, 1876 1948. Beirut: Muʾassasat al Dirāsāt al Filasṭīnīyah/al Ittiḥād al ʿĀmm lil Kuttāb wa al Ṣuḥufīyīn al Filasṭīnīyīn, 1976. 272 pp. Z3479.N6K45 RR5 Iranian and Turkic: Azarbayjan Altstadt Mirhadi, Audrey, "The Azerbaijani Bourgeoisie and the Cultural Enlightenment Movement in Baku: First Steps toward Nationalism," in Suny, Ronald Grigor, ed., Transcaucasia: Nationalism and Social Change, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1983, pp.197 207. DK511.T65T70 1983, The Azerbaijani Turkish Community of Baku before World War I, unpublished Ph.d. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1983. DK999.A463 Bennigsen, Alexandre and Lemercier Quelquejay, Chantal, Le Presse et le movement national chez les Musulmans de Russie avant 1920, Paris: Mouton, 1964. PN5277.I8B4 Swietochowski, T., "National Consciousness and Political Orientations in Azerbaijan, 1905 1920," in Suny, Ronald Grigor, ed., Transcaucasia: Nationalism and Social Change, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1983, pp. 209 232. DK511.T65T70 1983, Russian Azarbaijan 1905 1920: the shaping of national identity in a Muslim community, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985 DK511.A975S940

Middle Eastern Popular Press 13 Central Asia Allworth, Edward, Central Asian Publishing and the Rise of Nationalism, New York: New York Public Library, 1965. Z464.S6A44, Nationalities of the Soviet East: Publications and Writing Systems, New York: Columbia University Press, 1971. Z3409.A44 Gen, RR2, RR5 Iran Browne, E. G. The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia: partly based on the manuscript work of Mīrzā Muḥammad ʿAlī Khān "Tarbiyat" of Tabrīz. Cambridge: University Press, 1914. PN 5449.P5B9 RR5, Gen. Hāshimī, Muḥammad Ṣadr. Tārīkh i jarāʾid va majallāt i Īrān. 4 v. in 3. Isfahan, 1327 (1949). PN 5449.P5H28 RR5, Gen. Pourhadi, Ibrahim V. Persian and Afghan Newspapers in the Library of Congress 1871 1978. Washington: Library of Congress, 1979. Z6958.I65P88 RR5 Sims Williams, Ursula, ed., Union Catalogue of Persian Serials & Newspapers in British Libraries, London: Ithaca, 1985. Z6958.I65M52 1985 RR5 Soroudi, Sorour, "Sur e Esrafil. 1907 08: Social and Political Ideology," Middle Eastern Studies vol. 24, London: F. Cass, 1988, pp.230 248. DS41.M63 Tehran. Kitābkhānah i Millī. Fihrist i rūznāmahhā yi mawjūd dar kitābkhānah i millī i Īrān. Tahiyah va tanẓīm az Bīzhan Sartīp'zādah; bā hamkārī i Kubrá Khudāparast, 2536. (2 vols.) Z6958.I65T26 1977 RR5 Turkey Baysal, Jale, Müteferrika'dan birinci meşrutiyete kadar Osmanlı Türklerinin bastıkları kitaplar, Istanbul: 1968. Z2846.B36 RR5 "La Presse musulmane: 'Liste des journaux ottomans'," Revue du monde musulman, vol. 8, 1908, pp. 97 139 (400+ titles for 1908...). BP1.R4 Uzunyaylalı, M. Talat, Tanzimattan günümuze Türkiye de Basının Islâmiyete Bakısı, Erzurum: Ahd Yayınları, [1987?]. BP63.T8U980 1986 Press Indices: al Ahrām (Indexes) [Kashshāf al Ahrām]. Cairo: AI21.A29 RR5; ub: RR5; microfm. AI21.A29 in JRL 309 Fihris al Muqtaṭaf, 1876 1952. Beirūt: al Jāmiʿah al Amrīkīyah, 1967 68 (3 vols.). PJ7801.A2M9 Index to 1876 1952

14 Middle Eastern Popular Press Jubūrī, Jāsim Muḥammad. Kashshāf al taḥlilī li majallāt al risālah al Islāmīyah. BP1.M23 J9 al Kashshāf al taḥlīlī al sanawī li ṣaḥīfat Umm al Qurā. 1977/78 JQ1825.A6K3 RR5 (ub issues: RR5) al Kashshāf al taḥlīlī lil ṣuḥuf wa al majallāt al ʿArabīyah. Cairo. Jan. 1963 67. AI19.A6K3 RR5 al Kashshāf al taḥlīlī lil ṣuḥuf wa al majallāt al Sūrīyah. Damascus: al Mudīrīyah. 1985. AI19.A6K34 RR5, Gen (ub issues: RR5) Murād, Riyāḍ ʿAbd al Ḥamīd. Fahāris al Muqtabas: majallah adabīyah ʿilmīyah ijtimāʿīyah... Damascus: Maṭbaʿat al Ḥijāz, 1976. AP95.A6M8 Index Talalūwī, ʿAbd al Raḥīm. al Kashshāf al taḥlilī li Majallāt al ʿArabī, Dec. 1958 Nov. 1983. 4 vols., Kuwait: Wizārat al Iʿlām, 1980. AP95.A6A652 1980

Middle Eastern Popular Press 15 CHRONOLOGY FOR THE ISLAMIC POPULAR PRESS Printing in the Islamic World: First printed texts came from non Islamic presses in the Ottoman Empire: 1490 Jews in Istanbul. 1610 Maronites in Lebanon. French in l7 18th cent. Istanbul. 1701 Greek Uniates in Aleppo. 1798 Introduction of presses during French invasion of Egypt (presses withdrawn with the French in 1802). First Arabic script presses: Istanbul 1729: the publication of Ibrahim Muteferrika's edition of the Vankulu dictionary. French introduction of Arabic presses into Egypt, 1798. a. proclamations. b. first Arabic newspaper al Tanbih, 1800. Cairo 1822: the full operation of the press at Bulaq. Beirut 1834: American Missionary press in Beirut. Mosul 1856: Dominican lithographic press. Damascus 1864: government press. Baghdad 1869: government press. I. ARABIC POPULAR PRESS: A. EGYPT 1. (FIRST PERIOD) al Waqāʾiʿ al Miṣrīyah [1828 ] (preserved only from 1840, official organ of Muḥammad ʿAlī's government). Wādī al Nīl. Cairo [1866 ]. Rawḍat al madāris al Miṣrīyah. Cairo [1870 ]. [AN95 33 RR5] Nuzhat al Afkār [1869 ]. al Ahrām. Alexandria/Cairo [1876 ] (by exiled Syrian Lebanese journalists, Salim & Bishara Taklā, French and Porte influence). [AN95 2 in JRL200] al Ittiḥād al Miṣrī. Alexandria. [1879 1892]. al Waṭan. Cairo [1877 1930] (Coptic). Abū Naẓẓarah [1877 ] (Ṣannūʿ, Yaʿqūb ibn Rafāʾīl). [DT43.A32 RR5] 2. (SECOND PERIOD) British occupation to WWI; important role of Syro Lebanese al Muqtaṭaf. Beirut/Cairo [1876 ] (transferred to Cairo where its editors founded the important daily ) al Iʾlām. Cairo [1885 ]. [AN95 19 RR5] al Muqqaṭṭam (pro British, pro reform, after 1889 in opposition to al Ahrām.). [AN95 30 RR5] al Muʿayyad [1889 ] (anti reform, pro traditional Islam). [AN95 29 RR5] al Ustādh. Cairo. [1892 ]. [AN95 36 RR5 (microfm.) and AP95.A6U7] al ʿAdālah. [1897 ] (took over role of al Muʿayyad as that paper grew more moderate). Miṣr [1896 ] (Adīb Isḥāq, nationalist). al Liwāʾ (Muṣṭafā Kāmil, nationalist). al Hilāl [1892 ] (Jūrji Zaydān, monthly review). Manār [1897 ] (Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā). al Salṭanah. Cairo [1897 ]

16 Middle Eastern Popular Press al Jāmiʿah [1899 ] (Faraḥ Anṭūn). al Jarīdah. Cairo [1907 ]. [AN95 21 RR5] Miṣr al fatāh. Cairo [1908 ]. [AN95 27.6 RR5] 3. (THIRD PERIOD) nationalist aspirations al Kashkūl. Cairo [1921 ]. [AN95 23 RR5] al Siyāsah. [1922 weekly, after 1926 daily] (Ḥusayn Haykal). al Balāgh. Cairo [1923 ]. [AN95 3] al Balāgh al ʾUsbūʿī. Cairo [1926 ]. [ microfm. RR5] Kawkab al Sharq [1924 ]. al Miṣrī. Cairo [1930 ]. [AN95 28 RR5] al Wafd [1935 1937] (weekly). al Miṣrī. Cairo [1936 ]. [AN95 28 RR5] al Wafd al Miṣrī. Cairo [1938 1946] (daily). 4. (FOURTH PERIOD) suspension of political press in 1952, reorganization of press in 1960 al Ahrām. [AN95 2 RR5; AN95 2 in JRL200] al Jumhūrīyah.Cairo [1954 ]. [AN95 22 RR5] al Masā al Akhbār B. LEVANT 1. BEIRUT a. Early Beirut Newspapers Mirʾāt al Aḥwāl. Beirut [1855 ] Ḥadīqat al Akhbār (Afkār) Beirut [1858 ] (supported by theturkish government in Syria). al Jawāʾib. [1860 ] (founded in Istanbul by Lebanese Aḥmad Fāris al Shidyāq, pro Ottoman, pro Islam), "father of newspaper Arabic", "greatest Arabic newspaper of the 19th century, on sale in Cairo, Beirut, Damascus, ʾIrak, and West Africa; diss. by Muhammad Alwan). [AP95 4 RR5] Nafīr Sūrīyah. Beirut [1860 ] (Beirut, Buṭrus al Bustānī, Christian). al Bashīr. [1869 ] ("first real Arabic paper in Beirut") al Jannah, al Junaynah, al Jinān. (Bustani family, bi weekly) Thamarāt al Funūn. [1874 ] (al Ittiḥād al 'Uthmānī, Muslim). al Taqqadum.(progressive) Lisān al Ḥāl. [1877 daily] (Khalīl Sarkîs,son in law of Buṭrus al Bustānī, suspended at one point by Ottoman government, al Mishkāt published in the interim). [ microfm. RR5] al Miṣbāḥ. [1880 ] (Maronite) Kawkab al Ṣubḥ al Munīr, al Nashrah al Usbūʿīyah. (Protestant reviews) al Hadīyah. (Greek Orthodox) Bayrūt. [weekly from 1885 ] (semi official counterpoise to Thamarāt al Funūn). [AN95 4 RR5] Ṣādā Lubnān. [1910 ] al Ḥaqīqah. [1909 ]. [ microfm. RR5] Zaḥlah al Fatāh. [1910 ] al Mufīd. [1911 ]. [ microfm. RR5] al Bayraq. [1923? ] b. Beirut in the period of French mandate al Ahrār. [1924? ] al Sharq. [1926 ] al Nahār. [1933 ]. [AN95 30.5 RR5] al Ittiḥād al Lubnānī. [1933 ] al Ruwwād. [1936 ]

Middle Eastern Popular Press 17 C. IRAQ Bayrūt. [1936 ]. [AN95.4 RR5] al Yawm. [1937 ] al Niḍāl. [1938 ] Raqīb al Aḥwāl. [1938 ] al ʿAmal. [1938 ] (Katā'ib (Phalange)) ʿAmal fī Khidmat Lubnān. Beirut [1977 1979]. 2. SYRIA a. Ottoman Syria (Ottoman decision that each vilayet should have a NEWSPAPER) Sūriyah. Damascus [1865 ] (official Ottoman in Arabic and Turkish) al Furāṭ. Aleppo [1867 ] (official Ottoman in Arabic and Turkish) al Shahbāʾ. Aleppo [1877 ] (weekly) Dimashq. [1879 ] (official) Mirʾāt al Akhlāq. [1886 ] (official) al Iʿtidal. Aleppo [1879 ] Ṭarābulus al Shām. Tripoli [1893 ] (weekly) al Shām. Damascus [1896 ] (independent political weekly) (harsh government control drove many Syrian Lebanese journalists to Egypt) b. Syria in the French Mandate period (large number of low CIRCULATION DAILIES) al Muqtabas. Damascus [1908 ]. [ microfm. RR5] Alifbā. [1920 ]. [AN95 2.4 RR5] al Ayyām. [1931 ] al Qabas. Damascus [1928 ] al Akhbār. [1928 ] al Inshāʾ. Damascus [1936 ] 3. PALESTINE al Karmal. Haifa [1908 1942] (founded by Najīb Naṣṣār, Orthodox). [ microfm. RR5] Filasṭīn. Jaffa [1911 ] (ʿIsā al ʿIsā, in 1929 it became the first Arabic daily, Orthodox). [ microfm. RR5] Sūriyah al Janūbīyah. [1919 ] Mirʾāt al Sharq. [1919 ]. [ microfm. RR5] Lisān al ʿArab. Jerusalem [1932 ]. [ microfm. RR5] al Ṣabāḥ. [1921 ] (organ of the Arab executive) Ṣirāṭ al Mustaqīm. [1925 ] (daily from 1929, Muslim) al ʿArab. Jerusalem [1932 ]. [ microfm. RR5] al Karmal al jadīd. Haifa [1934 ] (continued al Karmal). [ microfm. RR5] al Difāʿ. [1934 ] (daily, Muslim, Arab nationalist). [AN95 12 RR5] al Waḥdah. [1945 ] (daily from 1946) al Ittiḥād. [1944 ] (fortnightly, communist) al Ghadd. [1945 ] (pro communist fortnightly) al Zawrāʾ. Baghdad [1869 ] (Arabic and Turkish, official) al Mawṣil. Mosul [1885 ] (Arabic and Turkish, official) al Baṣrah. Basra [1895 ] (Arabic and Turkish, official) D. ARABIAN PENNINSULA Sanʿāʾ. Sanʿāʾ [1877 ] al Ḥijāz. Mecca [1908 ] al Qiblah. Mecca. [1916 1924]. [AN95 31.5 RR5] Sawṭ al Ḥijāz. Mecca [1932 41]. [AN95 33.8 RR5] (continued by: al Bilād al Saʿūdīyah. Mecca [1946 ]. [AN95 52 RR5])

18 Middle Eastern Popular Press E. NORTH AFRICA Ṭarābulus al Gharb. Tripoli [1871 ]. [AN95 35 RR5] F. ABROAD al Ayyām. New York [1898 1900]. [AN95 2.7 RR5] al Bayān. New York [1911 1938] al Dalīl.New York [1904 1914] al Funūn. New York [1913 18]. [PJ7501.F94] al Ḥaqāʾiq. Woking, England [1889 ]. [PJ7801.A2H25] al Hudā. Philadelphia [1898 1966] al Jawāʾib. Istanbul [1860 ]. [AP94 4 RR5] Kawkab Amīrkā. New York [1892 1896] al Kawn. New York [1907 1909]. [AN95 24 RR5] Mirʾāt al gharb. New York [1899 1916] al Naṣr. New York [1914 1943] al Ṣāʾiḥ. New York [1912 ]. [AN95 33.7 RR5] al Tilmīdh. St. Petersburg [AN95 51 RR5 (microfm.) and AN310.T6 RR5] II. TURKISH POPULAR PRESS: Takvīm i Vekaʿyı. İstanbul [1247 1294 (1831 1878); 1307 1308 (1891 1892); 1324 1338 (1908 1920)] (official government organ. Its circulation enhanced by introduction of postal service in 1834. After 1922 it became Resmī Cerīde, then Resmi Gazete [J7.T1A4 RR5]). [ microfm. RR5] A. TANZIMAT PERIOD (1839 1876) Cerīde i Havadis. (first non official Ottoman newspaper; founded in 1840 by Englishman William Churchill). Tercumān i Ahval, 1st privately owned newspaper produced by a Turk (weekly), Churchill responded to this competition with a daily version called Rūznāme i Cerīde i Ḥavādiṣ (publication suspended for two weeks first official supression of newspaper by Turkish government) [ microfm. RR5]. Rūznāme i Ceride i Ḥavādiṣ. İstanbul [1 Cumada II, 1256 1294 (1840 1878)] Vekaʿyı Ṭibbiyye. (officially sponsored medical monthly from 1850) Maarif. İstanbul [1269 1309 (1853 93), 1313 1314 (1897 98)] Basiret. İstanbul [10 Kanun II 1285 1324 (1868 1906)] Diyojen. İstanbul [1286 1288 (1869 1872)]. [ RR5 and microfm. RR5] Çıngıraklı Tatar. İstanbul [1289 (1873)] Şems. İstanbul [28 Eylül, 1290 1294 (1874 1878)] Vakit. İstanbul, Çıkaran [14 Mayis, 1291 1298 (1875 1883)] B. REIGN OF ABDÜLHAMIT II (1876 1909) Tercümān i Haḳiḳat. İstanbul [1295 1338 (1878 1922)] Mizan. İstanbul [22 Muharrem, 1304 28 Rebi II, 1308; 29 Şubat, 1314 19 Temmuz, 1315; 17 Temmuz, 1324 11 Nisan, 1325 (1886 1919)] Saʿadet. İstanbul [21 Rebi I, 1302H 1310M/1312H (1885 1894)] Mürüvvet. İstanbul [28 Rebi II 1304H/1302R 10 Şevval 1308H/1306R (1886 90)] Ṣabāḥ. İstanbul, Çıkaran [22 Aªustos, 1305M 7 Teşrin II, 1338M (1889 1922)] İḳdām. Sahibi [23 Haziran 1310/1894 30 Teşrin II 1928] Amid i Sevda. Diyarbakir [1906 1907]. [DS51.D65A5 and microfm. RR5]

Middle Eastern Popular Press 19 C. YOUNG TURK PERIOD (1908 1918) Beyan ül Hak. İstanbul [22 Eylül 1324M/1325H 22 Teşrin I 1328M/1330H (1908 1912)]. [AP95.T8B57] Cingöz. İstanbul [1324/26 (1908)]. [ RR5] Davul. İstanbul [1908 1909] Ez p. İstanbul [1908] (continued by ƒaraḳuş Ez p). [ RR5] Ḥācīvād. İstanbul, Ṣāḥib [1324/26 (1908)]. [ RR5 and microfm. RR5] Karagöz. İstanbul [28 Temmuz, 1324 14 Mayis, 1327 (1908 1911)]. [AP95 f.t8k2 Rare and microfm. AP95 13 RR5] ƒaraḳuş Ez p. İstanbul [1908; continues Ez p]. [] Nekregū. İstanbul [1324/26 (1908)] (continued by Nekregû ile Pîşekâr). [ RR5] Şāḳacı. İstanbul [1908]. [ RR5] Laḳ Laḳ. İstanbul [1325 (1909)]. [] Alāfrān a. İstanbul [1910] (continues Kibār; continued by Yūhā.). [ RR5] Kibār. İstanbul [1910] (continues: Eşek; continued by: Alāfrān a). [] Maʿlūm. İstanbul, [1910 1911] (continues: Yūhā). [] Yūhā. İstanbul [1910] (continues: Alāfrān a; continued by: Maʿlūm). [ RR5] Meydān. [1327 1328 (1912)] (continued by Meydān Seloniḳa [which is continued by Yeni Meydān Seloniḳa]). [ RR5 and microfm. RR5] Meydān Seloniḳa. [=Meidan Salonique.]. Seloniḳa, Sermuharrırı [1327 1328 (1912)] (continues Meydān; continued by Yeni Meydān Seloniḳa [=Yeni Meidan Salonique]). [ RR5 and microfm. RR5] Zekā. İstanbul [1912 1914]. [ RR5 and microfm. RR5] Yeni Mecmua. İstanbul [1917 ]. [PL291.Y5] D. TURKISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1918 1923) Âyîne. İstanbul [1921 1923] Aydede. İstanbul [1922, 1948 1949]. [PL201.A93, microfm. RR5] Zümrüd i Anka. İstanbul [1922 1924] E. TURKISH REPUBLIC (1923 ) Resmi Gazete. İstanbul and Ankara [1923 ]. [J7.T1A4 RR5] Cumhuriyet. İstanbul [7 Mayis, 1924 ]. [AN95 6 microfm.] Muhit. [Muṣavver Muhit]. İstanbul [1928 1933]. [AP95 f.t8m9] Ali Aga. İstanbul [1929?]. [AP115.A42] Amcabey. İstanbul [1942 1944]. [ RR5 and microfm. RR5] Markopaşa. İstanbul [1946 1947, 1948 1949.]. [AP115.M37 and AP115.M38 and microfm. RR5] Ali Baba (Kırk Jaramilere Karşı Ali Baba). İstanbul [1947.]. [f AP115.A44 and microfc. RR5 Lalapaşa. İstanbul [1947]. [AP115.L34 and microfm. RR5] Malûmpaşa. İstanbul [1947]. [AP115.M34 bound & microfc. RR5, & microfm. RR5] Merhumpaşa. İstanbul [1947]. [AP115.M47] Bizim Paşa. İstanbul [1949]. [AP115.B6 and microfm. RR5] Hür Markopaşa. İstanbul [1949 1950]. [ microfm. RR5 and AP115.H83] Nuhun Gemisi. İstanbul [1949 1950]. [AP115.N83, microfm. RR5] Beraber. İstanbul [1952 1953]. [AP95.T8B47 RR5 and microfm. RR5] Yön. İstanbul [1961 1967] (Begun by radical intellectuals after the 1960 coup. Voice of the Turkish left.). [AP95.T8Y6] Türk Solu. İstanbul [1967 ]. [AP95.T8T9] Devrim. Ankara [1969 ]. [AN249 f.a6d5] Cumhuriyet Yıllık. (annual review) İstanbul [1983 ]. [DR401.Y5]