The Educational System of Turkey: an overview of administrative structures, socio-political guidelines and legal principles

Otto-Friedrich-University Bamberg Department for Modern Oriental Languages and Cultures Summer-Term 2008 Institute for Turkish Studies Course (Seminar): Social and Cultural Issues of Modern Turkey Scholar: Prof. Dr. Sabine Prätor Subject of Evaluation: The Educational System of Turkey: an overview of administrative structures, socio-political guidelines and legal principles 1 David Leupold Hegelstraße 69 96052 Bamberg e-mail: dia-sonador@t-online.de due date: 30.07.08 Main Subject: Modern Oriental Studies BA Subsidiary Subject: Business Management

Index 1. Atatürk s educational principles as a historical legacy.. 2 2. Legal foundations of the educational system in Turkey....3 2.1 Areas of state responsibility in the field of education...... 3 2.2 The fourteen basic principles of education in Turkey......4 3. Basic structure of the educational system in Turkey...13 3.1 Pre-primary education: Mother School (Ana Okulu)....13 3.2. Primary Education: Primary School (İlk Okulu).13 3.3. Secondary Education: Middle School / High School (Orta Okulu / Lise)...14 3.4. Private schools for exam preparation: Dershane... 15 3.5. Higher Education (Yüksek Öğretim),,,..15 4. Overview of recent reform programs and conclusion. 17 5. Register of Source Material....18 2

1. Atatürk s educational principles as a historical legacy "No matter how great may be the victories won by a nation at the battle field, those victories may only yield lasting results through the efforts of an army of educators. Because they are the ones who pave the way for a life in an independent, dignified and educated society, they are the ones which avert misery and lead out of subjugation. Mustafa Kemal 1 Mustafa Kemal, founder of modern Turkey and so called father of the Turks, regarded the youth as the main vehicle to implement his constitutional and socio-political reforms and thus attached great importance to education. This attitude is based on his basic view that education may serve as an effective tool to educate future generations and to create a society which relies on democratic and national values. In this context education plays an important role as one of the four main responsibilities of the Turkish state alongside with maintaining security, guaranteeing justice and providing health care. This term paper is aimed at giving a short and recent overview of the basic structure and functionality of Turkey s educational system and its legal frameworks. Hereby it will be discussed briefly in how far the main principles, as stated in the General National Law of Education (1973), have been implemented in present Turkey. After a short delineation of the present legal situation I will reflect briefly about the degree of implementation nowadays and its feasibility in the future. In so doing, I not only follow the aim to specify aforementioned legal basic principles but also to constitute the explanatory framework for the question whether the Turkish state already satisfies to a sufficient degree its self-imposed obligations or not. As the main source for my work, I will focus on the original wording of the law in accordance with the General National Law of Education adopted in 1973 and in particular the basic principles of education as written in 4-17. In addition, up-to-date information which I obtained mainly from the digital Turkish print media via internet serve as the main source for the subsequent critical discussion on implementation and feasibility. Following this legal-based, socio-political discussion, I will outline the basic structure of the educational system in the second part of my paper to provide a short overview encompassing educational institutions and their functions. In face of the steadily growing importance of private institutions such as Dershaneler, which offer exam preparation courses, I will expand the view on other fields of education in Turkey, too. On this regard, various references to studies and assessments carried out by both national (central agency for press and information) and international (European commission / eurydice) institutions will underpin my paper with empiric data and increase its objectivity. In conclusion, a short overview of recent programs initiated by the Turkish state will give an outlook for future developments in this field. 1 from an address to teachers in Kütahya, 2 April 1923, cf. Turkish Ministry for Higher Education (http://yogm.meb.gov.tr) 3

2. Legal Foundations of the Educational System in Turkey: 2.1. Areas of State Responsibility in the Field of Education In the following part the basic legal framework is outlined to give insight into acknowledged guidelines and gauge the scope of action for potential reforms. On this regard, the basic aims as formulated at the time when Turkey was founded have still preserved their validity and thus serve as the origin for all applied laws. As a matter of fact, we can note that there are three areas of state responsibility in the field of education with complementary goals. a) Value-oriented responsibility: This area of responsibility crystalizes around the striving to evoke and develop a sense of national dignity and respect at the population level towards the Turkish state, its government, Atatürk s reforms and his main principles 2 as well as to arouse the willingness to defend these values by all means if necessary by military force. On the other side, it also aims at the development of modern and responsible citizens which are obliged to uphold the principles as stated in the first paragraph of the Turkish Constitution and adopt humanistic, ideological and cultural values. b) Educational responsibility: In this field of responsibility in particular the development of individual skills and talents plays an important role, together with an appropriate preparation for later working life. The latter goal is of course also motivated by the need to provide a keener competitive edge vis-à-vis competitors abroad. Hence creativity and own initiatives of citizens have to be fostered by all means. c) Social responsibility: on this regard, a special focus is laid on the interdependence between fostering the individual and its contribution to stabilization and development of the Turkish state. In fact, a high level of education is regarded as a crucial factor for the perseverance of prosperity and happiness 3 of the Turkish nation. Education maintains a key position for the creation of a modern nation 4 both in terms of technological and social progress. In this context, the state is obliged to implement these goals and adopt a policy to achieve this. The foundation of a ministry for education tasked with setting up efficient teaching systems and allocating human and financial resources at a domestic scale and abroad serves as a pre-condition to satisfy these obligations. On this regard the state does not only carry out educational tasks but also value-oriented tasks with the aim to create a society in accordance to Atatürk s principles of modern society 2 3 4 Turk.: Atatürk'ün inkilabı ve ilkeleri Turk.: refah ve mutluluk Turk.: çağdaş uygarlık 4

2.2. The Fourteen Basic Principles of Education in Turkey: In the following part of my work I will briefly delineate the legal foundation on which education in Turkey is based on, in particular the basic principles of the General National Law of Education (Millî Eğitim Temel Kanunu 5 ). In addition to this legal approach I will reflect about the actual degree of implementation and the overall feasibility in the future. On the one hand I will refer to implemented reforms, on the other hand I will also mention deficiencies not remedied yet with the aim to check the principles thoroughly on regard to their implementation. In particular 4-17 of the General National Law of Education, adopted on 14.06.1973, serves as the legal basis for my following discussion. Further amendments have been made in 1983 and 2004. 4 Generality and Equality (Genellik ve Eşitlik) Legal basis: According to paragraph 4 of the General National Law of Education all educational institutions are freely accessible to all citizen notwithstanding religious, linguistic, sexual and ethnic differences. Moreover educational institutions do not grant any privileges on grounds of membership or affiliation with a certain social group. 6 Critical assessment of its implementation: On regard to pupils and students with different religious affiliations and confessions, respectively, the principle of equal treatment has been mainly achieved. The same is also true for the treatment of pupils and student of ethnic minorities, although there is evidence for individual cases of discrimination. Moreover educational institutions enforce the principle of nondiscrimination unconditionally on regard to female pupils and students. Albeit a considerably higher rate of analphabetism among female students indicate that the educational system does not succeed in reaching all parts of the society so far. On this regard it is of essential importance to create a better understanding for education of women especially among the less well-educated parts of the society. However, the second section of paragraph 4 is strongly controversial in face of a country which is still strongly dominated by a prosperity gap in particular along its east-west axis. Certainly, it cannot be denied that the Turkish state has already taken several measures and implemented various reforms in the field of education to minimize the negative impact of this socio-economic differential. As a matter of fact, since the school term 2003/2004 the Turkish state covers all expenses for learning materials at a primary and secondary school level. Additionally, a nationwide-enforced school uniform requirement contributes to a preventive defusing of potential conflicts which may emerge in an environment where pupils of different socio-economic groups come together. Hence the overall aim is to establish schools and universities as institutions 5 Turk.: Genel Millî Eğitim Sistemi 6 Excerpt from paragraph 4 of the METK: Eğitim kurumları dil, ırk, cinsiyet ve din ayrımı gözetmeksizin herkese açıktır. eğitim de hiçbir kişiye aileye zümreye veya imtiyaz tanınamaz. 5

where education and teaching is granted regardless of social differences. However, to perceive the full scope of this issue we must restrict ourselves on a discussion on state institutions only but must also take into consideration privately run, fee-based institutions. In fact, the very same coexistence of private and state institutions emerges as a crucial factor on the way to achieve the goal of equal education regardless of socio-economic differences. In particular in urban areas an elaborate network of private institutions and their intricate ramifications is almost forming a second educational branch which is only accessible to some pupils and students due to financial bottlenecks. On the other hand, students and pupils which come from families distinguished by an above-average income 7 benefit from the partially better educational opportunities at private institutions a circumstance which further exacerbates the problem of non-equal access to higher education and thus contributes to a distortion of competition on the labor market. Finally, a comparatively high rate of unemployment among university graduates further aggravates the problem of equal educational opportunities regardless of social and economic background and again underlines the fact that the margin for maneuver in Turkey s domestic policy is rather limited. 5 Geared towards the necessities of the individual (Ferdin ve Toplumun İhtiyaçları) Legal basis: According to paragraph 5 of the METK all state-run educational services are designed under consideration of individual abilities and wishes of their citizen to meet the overall needs of Turkish society. 8 Critical Assessment of Implementation: In face of an educational system which is strongly dominated by selection tests such as ÖSS (University Entrance Exam 9 ), YDS (Foreign Language Exam 10 ), SBS (Level Determining Exam 11 ) or KPSS (Selection Test for Personnel in Public Service 12 ) there are serious doubts whether there is sufficient spare time for pupils and students to develop themselves according to their own preferences and talents. In fact criticism was raised especially from pupils and students who complain that the steady pressure to perform impairs both their personal development and their occupational orientation as tight schedules leave them no time to work more elaborately on topics which match with their talents, abilities and fields of interest, respectively. For instance, there is no possibility for pupils in Turkey, like it is still true for students in Germany, to choose key subjects for their university entrance exam and thus focus on parts of the curriculum for which they feel especially qualified. Instead, upon leaving high school all pupils have to undergo the same selection 7 Turk.: seçkin 8 Excerpt from paragraph 5 of the METK: Milli eğitim hizmeti, Türk vatandaşlarının istek ve kabiliyetleri ile Türk toplumunun ihtiyaçlarına göre düzenlenir. 9 Turk.: Öğrenci Seçme Sınavı. 10 Turk.: Yabancı Dil Sınavı 11 Turk.: Seviye Belirleme Sınavı 12 Turk.: Kamu Personel Seçme Sınavı 6

procedure and have to attend a centralized university entrance exam (ÖSS) for application regardless of their individual abilities and future department. 6 Allocation (Yöneltme) Legal basis: According to paragraph 6 of the METK in the course of their individual education pupils and students are allocated to different teaching programs and institutions under consideration of their fields of interest, talents and abilities. At any rate, the national educational system has been established to implement this goal. On regard to grading and performance checks value standards are to be established to ensure an objective allocation of human entities. 13 Critical assessment of implementation: The Turkish educational system has been criticized lately especially on grounds of evaluation units in use for the aforementioned selection tests. In specific terms it is argued that a single, comprehensive exam is unlikely to display the actual level of education as factors like stress can have a major impact on the performance of the day and consequently on test results. In order to tackle these problems and to increase the overall objectivity of test results a reform of the present selection procedure is discussed currently. Performance monitoring for a period of three years has been envisaged as a replacement for the controversial ÖSS exam. 7 Right on education (Eğitim Hakkı) Legal basis: According to paragraph 7 of the METK the state is obliged to secure primary education for every Turkish citizen on legal grounds. Furthermore there is an emphasis on a secondary education and higher education geared towards the preferences and abilities of the individual. 14 Critical assessment of implementation: In times of steadily growing population figures serious concern has been raised on regard to whether the reception capacity of the Turkish educational system has been already surcharged. In face of dynamic developments in this field the right on education should rather form an impetus for future reforms and a guideline for potential measures than viewed as a specific goal which can be actually achieved. 13 Excerpt from paragraph 6 of the METK: Ferdler eğitimleri süresince, ilgi, istidat ve kabiyetleri ölçüsünde ve doğrultusunda çeşitli programlara ve okullara yönetilerek yetiştirilirler. milli eğitim sistemi her bakımından bu yöneltmeyi gerçekleştirecek biçimde düzenlenir. bu amaçla ortaöğretim kurumlarına eğitim programlarının hedeflerine uygun düşecek şekilde hazırlık sınıfları konulabilir. yöneltmede ve başarının ölçümesinde rehberlik hizmetlerinden ve objektiv ölçme ve değerlendirme metotlarından yararlanılır. 14 Excerpt from paragraph 7 of the METK: Ilköğretim görmek her türk vatandaşının hakkıdır, ilköğretim kurumlarından sonraki eğitim kurumlarından vatandaşlar ilgi, istidat ve kabiliyetleri ölçüsünde yararlanırlar. 7

8 Equal Opportunities (Fırsat ve İmkân Eşitliği) Legal basis: On this regard, paragraph 8 of the METK serves as the legal basis to safeguard equal opportunities in education in particular for women. Additionally, it is explicitly emphasized that successful students are eligible for non-refunded bursaries, loans and state credits during the whole course of their education to cover expenses such as university fees and livelihood. 15 Critical assessment of implementation: The Turkish state satisfies this obligation both in material and immaterial terms within the scope of ist financial possibilities. By initiating and running campaigns like Haydi Kızlar Okula (eng.: com mon girls, let s go to school! ) or Baba beni okula gönder (eng.: Dad, send me to school! ) the Turkish state pursues the goal to reach all parts of the society and to sensitize people to the essential importance of education. In fact, most of these campaigns are originally initiated by state institutions but later on implemented by parent associations in collaboration with teachers. However, financial support is realized mainly by means of bursaries, loans and credits with the aim to increase educational opportunities of students who are disadvantaged in terms of their socio-economic background. 9 Continuity (Süreklilik) Legal basis: According to paragraph 9 of the METK general and occupational education of the individual is to be continued throughout the entire life. 16 For this reason the Turkish state is not only obliged to provide education for young people but also for adults to ensure that they successfully cope with the challenges of modern occupational and personal life. 17 Critical assessment of implementation: The Turkish state has embarked on several projects to satisfy this obligation by establishing informal educational centers. On this regard, alongside with apprentice training and national education programs in particular campaigns to foster distance learning are envisaged. In fact, between 2006 and 2007 4,508,564 people have participated in programs offered at informal education centers, which corresponds to a strong increase compared to previous years. 15 Excerpt from paragraph 8 of the METK: Eğitimde kadın, erkek herkese fırsat ve imkân eşitliği sağlanır. Maddî imkânlardan yoksun başarılı öğrencilerin en yüksek eğitim kademelerine kadar öğrenim görmelerini sağlamak amacıyla parasız yatılılık, burs, kredi ve başka yollarla gerekli yardımlar yapılır. Özel eğitime ve korunmaya muhtaç çocukları yetiştirmek için özel tedbirler alınır. 16 Excerpt from paragraph 9 of the METK: Fertlerin genel ve mesleki eğitimlerinin hayat boyunca devam etmesi esastır. 17 Excerpt from paragraph 9 of the METK: Gençlerin eğitimi yanında, hayata ve iş alanlarına olumlu bir şekilde uymalarına yardımcı olmak üzere, yetişkinlerin sürekli eğitimini sağlamak için gerekli tedbirleri almak da bir eğitim görevidir. 8

10 Atatürk s reforms, his principles and his concept of national sovereignty (Atatürk İnkılâp ve İlkeleri ve Atatürk Milliyetçiliği) Legal basis: According to paragraph 10 of the METK the educational system forms the basis of Atatürk s concept of national sovereignty. Therefore all curricula of the state educational system have to be prepared and taught by all means in alignment with Atatürk s principles to foster reformism in the spirit of his ideals. Furthermore, the undisputed necessity to heed and perceive ones national identity as part of a global cultural heritage and to preserve national values against denigration is to be communicated throughout the course of education. 18 Additionally, the essential importance of the Turkish language as the main unifying element of all Turkish citizens is to be stressed at virtually every stage of primary and secondary education as well as the need to further develop native language skills in different fields of science. On this regard, it lies within the ministry of education to ensure collaboration of state educational bodies with research centers in the field of culture, language and national 19 20 history. Critical assessment of implementation: The Turkish educational system sees itself in every respect as the legitimate bearer of Atatürk s historical heritage 21. For this reason all reforms in this field are implemented under the watchful eye of the public and the media, respectively. Bearing in mind that Mustafa Kemal himself always attached great importance to education as the buttress of his system of democratic and national values in the future it is self-understood that all issues in this field are discussed in a highly sensitive manner. 11 Education for democracy (Demokrasi Eğitimi) Gesetzliche Grundlage: According to paragraph 11 of the METK the Turkish state is obliged to develop a sense of democracy among all citizens in ordert o create a strong, independent, free and democratic society. On this regard, pupils and students have to be sensitized to both immaterial values, respect the freely elected Turkish government and the need to act responsibly with political issues on domestic platforms and abroad. As a matter of fact, any kind of political and/or ideological undercurrent which contradicts 18 Excerpt from paragraph 10 of the METK: Eğitim sistemimizin her derece ve türü ile ilgili ders programlarının hazırlanıp uygulanmasında ve her türlü eğitim faaliyetlerinde Atatürk inkılap ve ilkeleri ve Anayasada ifadesini bulmuş olan Atatürk milliyetçiliği temel olarak alınır. Milli ahlak ve milli kültürün bozulup yozlaşmadan kendimize has şekli ile evrensel kültür içinde korunup geliştirilmesine ve öğretilmesine önem verilir. 19 Turk.: millî tarih 20 Excerpt from paragraph 10 of the METK: Milli birlik ve bütünlüğün temel unsurlarından biri olarak Türk dilinin, eğitimin her kademesinde, özellikleri bozulmadan ve aşırılığa kaçılmadan öğretilmesine önem verilir; çağdaş eğitim ve bilim dili halinde zenginleşmesine çalışılır ve bu maksatla Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu ile işbirliği yapılarak Mili Eğitim Bakanlığınca gereken tedbirler alınır. 21 Turk.: Atatürk ün biraktigi mirasin bekcisi 9

to Atatürk s concept of nationalism as expressed in the Turkish constitution must be barred from access to state educational centers. Furthermore, educational institutions leave no room for quarrels on issues of daily politics. 22 Critical assessment of Implementation: The recent debate on whether the ban for headscarves at universities should be lifted or not as well as the rising tensions between Yusuf Ziya Özcan, head of YÖK (Turkish Higher Education Counciş 23 ), and several university directorates has moved the educational system involuntarily in the center of domestic power politics. In fact, AK Party (Party for Justice and Progress 24 ), today s ruling party in office, has argued in ist draft law to lift the ban on headscarfs at universities that this prohibition would restrict personal freedom and thus be inconsistent with democratic principles. 12 Laicism (Lâiklik) Legal basis: According to paragraph 12 of the METK laicism is basic principle of the Turkish educational system. The curriculum envisages religion and ethics lessons alongside with compulsory courses at middle and high schools. 25 Critical Assessment of Implementation: With the aim to demonstrate the overall secular nature of the Turkish state religious education is reduced it to a minimum. However, for the very same reason religious families often insist on their children taking further religious classes at private religious institutions such as Qu ran reading courses at Mosques during vacation or on the weekends. Of course, this again means a double burden for pupils. 13 Scientific Up-to-dateness (Bilimsellik) Legal basis: According to paragraph 13 of the METK both the curriculum and the teaching materials used are subject to a permanent process of readjustment and rearrangement to go along with the latest technical and scientific innovations. 26 In order 22 Excerpt from paragraph 11 of the METK: Güçlü ve istikrarlı, hür ve demokratik bir toplum düzeninin gerçekleşmesi ve devamı için yurttaşların sahip olmaları gereken demokrasi bilincinin, yurt yönetimine ait bilgi, anlayış ve davranışlarla sorumluluk duygusunun ve manevi değerlere saygının, her türlü eğitim çalışmalarında öğrencilere kazandırılıp geliştirilmesine çalışılır; ancak, eğitim kurumlarında Anayasada ifadesini bulan Atatürk milliyetçiliğine aykırı siyasi ve ideolojik telkinler yapılmasına ve bu nitelikteki günlük siyasi olay ve tartışmalara karışılmasına hiçbir şekilde meydan verilmez.. 23 Turk.: Yüksek Öğretim Kurumu 24 Turk.: Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi 25 Excerpt from the paragraph 12 of the METK: Türk milli eğitiminde laiklik esastır. Din kültürü ve ahlak öğretimi ilköğretim okulları ile lise ve dengi okullarda okutulan zorunlu dersler arasında yer alır. 26 Excerpt from paragraph 13 of the METK: Her derece ve türdeki ders programları ve eğitim metotlarıyle ders araç ve gereçleri, bilimsel ve teknolojik esaslara ve yeniliklere, çevre ve ülke ihtiyaçlarına göre sürekli o larak geliştirilir. 10

to ensure steady progress and an increase in productivity performance monitoring in the field of education is indispensable as value reports are the precondition for further steps of progress and development. 27 On this regard, in particular scientific and cultural research centers have to be supported with both tangible and non-tangible assets to maintain sustainable progress. 28 Critical Assessment of Implementation: Recent studies, revealing crowded classes, out-dated teaching materials, buildings urgently in need of repair and excessively unsanitary conditions in particular at primary schools bring up the questions whether it is appropriate to speak of a successful implementation of this principle or not. 29 Comparably higher financial investments in the field of higher education create the impression of prestige projects. 14 Plannability (Plânlılık) a) labor-market oriented education Legal basis: In the first section of paragraph 14 of the METK an education geared towards the requirements of today s labor market is strongly emphasized. In fact, national education should be adjusted towards the goals of economic, social and cultural development. In specific terms this means that this principle envisages an education tailored towards the technical and occupational requirements of a labor market dominated by modernization and industrialization. 30 Critical assessment of implementation: In face of an alarmingly high unemployment rate especially among university graduates the need for education geared towards the requirements of an internationalized labor market becomes evident to increase the competiveness of Turkish students on the domestic labor market and abroad. b) optimal use of capacities and economic efficiency Legal basis: In the second section of paragraph 14 of the METK the need to consider all relevant and cost-determining factors prior to the establishment of new institutions 27 Excerpt from paragraph 13 of the METK: Eğitimde verimliliğin artırılması ve sürekli olarak gelişme ve yenileşmenin sağlanması bilimsel araştırma ve değerlendirmelere dayalı olarak yapılır. 28 Excerpt from paragraph 13 of the METK: Bilgi ve teknoloji üretmek ve kültürümüzü geliştirmekle görevli eğitim kurumları gereğince donatılıp güçlendirilir; bu yöndeki çalışmalar maddi ve manevi bakımından teşvik edilir ve desteklenir. 29 'okulların büyük altyapı sorunu var' (http://www.cnnturk.com/video/index.asp?pn=8&vid=5423) 30 Excerpt from paragraph 13 of the METK: Milli eğitim gelişmesi iktisadi sosyal ve kültürel kalkınma hedeflerine uygun olarak eğitim - insangücü - istihdam ilişkileri dikkate alınmak suretiyle sanayileşme ve tarımda modernleşmede gerekli teknolojik gelişmesi sağlayacak mesleki ve teknik eğitime ağırlık verecek biçimde planlanır ve gerçekleştirilir. 11

and other facilities is expressed explicitly. The main purpose of this guideline is to identify and exploit factors which ensure an optimal use of idle capacities. 31 Critical assessment of implementation: The aforementioned non-acceptable conditions of several primary schools especially in the Eastern part of Turkey reveal the evidence that there is certain mismatch between economic efficiency and educational responsibility. 15 Lifting of separate gender-specific education (Karma Eğitim) Legal basis: According to paragraph 15 of the METK a joint education of male and female pupils is mandatory. Only schools and other educational institutions which are compelled to offer separate gender-specific education on grounds of limited possibilities or special requirements are excluded from this regulation. 32 Critical assessment of implementation: Elaborate research on this topic gave no evidence for any infringement of this principle within the state educational system. 16 Collaboration of schools and parents (Okul ile Ailenin İş Birliği) Legal basis: Paragraph 16 of the METK forms the legal framework for collaboration of schools and parents in order to contribute significantly to a realization of common goals in the field of education. 33 For this purpose the establishment of parental associations has to be encouraged to organize socio-cultural campaigns with the aim to improve the overall conditions of education. Furthermore, such a collaboration increases the productivity of educational services as it directly addresses families to coparticipate in an interactive environment. For instance free accessible canteens for pupils and students can be run by such associations. 34 Yet these associations rely solely on donations as pupils and students cannot be compelled to make financial contributions. 35 On regard to taxation we can tell from a subsection of the paragraph 31 Excerpt from paragraph 14 of the METK: Eğitim kurumlarının yer, personel, bina, tesis ve ekleri, donatım, araç, gereç ve kapasiteleri ile ilgili standartlar önceden tespit edilir vr kurumların bu standartlara göre optimal büyüklükte kurulması ve verimli olarak işletilmesi sağlanır. 32 Excerpt from paragraph 15 of the METK: Okullarda kız ve erkek karma eğitim yapılması esastır. Ancak eğitimin türüne, imkan ve zorunluluklara göre bazı okullar yalnızca kız veya yalnızca erkek öğrencilere ayrılabilir. 33 Excerpt from paragraph 15 of the METK: Eğitim kurumlarının amaçlarının gerçekleştirilmesine katkıda bulunmak için okul ile aile arasında iş birliği sağlanır. 34 Excerpt from paragraph 16 of the METK: Bu amaçla okullarda okul-aile birlikleri kurulur. Okul-aile birlikleri, okulların eğitim ve öğretim hizmetlerine etkinlik ve verimlilik kazandırmak, okulların ve maddî imkânlardan yoksun öğrencilerin zorunlu ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak üzere; aynî ve nakdî bağışları kabul edebilir, maddî katkı sağlamak amacıyla sosyal ve kültürel etkinlikler ve kampanyalar düzenleyebilir, okulların bünyesinde bulunan kantin, açık alan, salon ve benzeri yerleri işlettirebilir veya işletebilirler. 35 Excerpt from paragraph 16 of the METK: Öğrenci velileri hiçbir surette bağış yapmaya zorlanamaz. 12

that all profits made by parental school associations are exempted from any charges or taxation. 36 Critical assessment of implementation: A large number of parent teacher associations have already been established at schools which are run voluntarily. At regular meeting with school directorates twice a year these associations agree on the financing and realization of initiated projects and campaigns. 17 Location-independent education (Her Yerde Eğitim) Legal basis: The fourteenth and last principle written in paragraph 17 of the METK expresses the obligation of the Turkish state to set up a comprehensive network of educational bodies to ensure access in virtually all parts of the country. Critical assessment of implementation: Since the foundation of modern Turkey a strong socio-economic and cultural west-east disparity dominates domestic politics. As a result of this asymmetric allocation and availability of financial resources and highqualified personnel the access to education is still difficult in the rural areas of Eastern Turkey. 36 Excerpt from paragraph 16 of the METK: Okul - aile birliklerinin gelirleri her türlü vergi, resim ve harçtan muaftır. 13

5. Register of Source Material Official sources: Milli Eğitim Temel Kanunu / Türk Milli Eğitimin Temel İlkeleri / General National Law of Education / Basic Principles of National Education: http://mevzuat.meb.gov.tr/html/88.html, http://aliaga.meb.gov.tr/sttc/temelkanun.htm (last access: 22.06.2008) Basin Yayin ve Enformasyon Genel Müdürlügü / Central Directorate for Press and Media: Türk Haberler Ajansi(THA), 2007: Türkei 2007 Der Almanach, S. 367-390, intertaktiv. Hrsgb. Ismail Ates, Internetquelle: http://www.byegm.gov.tr/ (last access: 22.06.2008) Ilköğretim Genel Müdürlüğü / Central Directorate for Primary Education: http://iogm.meb.gov.tr/pages.php?page=sube&id=13 (last access: 30.05.2008) Yüksek Öğretim Genel Müdürlüğü / Central Directorate for Higher Education: http://yogm.meb.gov.tr/yuksekogretim.htm (last access: 23.06.2008) Milli Eğitim Başkanlığı / Ministry for National Education: http://www.meb.gov.tr/duyurular/duyurular2006/takvim/egitim_sistemi.html (last access: 04.07.2008) Serviye Belirleme Sınavı Danışmanı / SBS Exam Guide: http://seviyebelirlemesinavi.blogspot.com/search/label/sbs (last access: 21.06.2008) 14

Öğrenci Seçme Sınavı Danışmanı /ÖSS Exam Guide: http://www.sinavonline.net/oss/osskapsam.asp (last access: 21.06.2008) http://www.sinavonline.net/oss/ossgenel.asp (last access: 21.06.2008) http://www.sinavonline.net/oss/osskapsam.asp (last access: 21.06.2008) Başını Örten Üniversite Öğrencşlerinin Karşılaştıkları Sorunlar / Problems facing students wearing headscarfs: http://www.enfal.de/tes06.htm (last access: 23.06.2008) Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Başkanlığı / Central Ministry for Atatürk Studies http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?page=dergiicerik&icerikno=1029 (last access: 05.07.2007) Bundesagentur für Arbeit: Zentrale Auslands- und Fachvermittlung / National Labour Agency http://www.baauslandsvermittlung.de/lang_de/nn_425794/de/laenderrueckkehrer/tuerkei/6 -Studieren/Studieren-knoten.html nnn=true (last access: 02.07.2008) Eurybase - The Information Database und Education Systems in Europe: Türk Eğitim Sisteminin Örgütlenmesi 2006/07, Hrsgb. European Commision / Directorate General for Education and Culture http://www.eurydice.org/ressources/eurydice/pdf/eurybase/eurybase_tr_vo.pdf (last access: 10.07.2008) 15

Online print media: Fırsatçılar 'ÖSS hapı' çıkarınca doktorlar öğrencileri uyardı: Yutmayın http://www.zaman.com.tr/haber.do?haberno=701130 (last access: 16.06.2008) YÖK başkanıyla türban gerilimi http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2007/12/15/siyaset/axsiy03.html (last access: 18.06.2008) Okulların büyük alt yapı sorunu var http://www.cnnturk.com/video/index.asp?pn=8&vid=5423 (last access: 03.07.2008) Türban sorununu YÖK başlattı http://www.cnnturk.com/turkiye/haber_detay.asp?pid=318&haberid=403978 (last access: 18.06.2008) Türk Eğitim Sistemi http://www.turkishweekly.net/turkce/makale.php?id=91 (last access: 23.06.2008) Personal accounts of contemporary witnesses: Özcan Gökhan, High School teacher in Torbalı / İzmir (interview conducted telephone: 02.05.2008) Şükran Bekmezci, Primary School teacher in Torbalı / İzmir (interview conducted: 10.09.2007) Kadir Zeybek, High School teacher in Torbalı / İzmir (interview conducted: 10.09.2007) 16